Cost effectiveness of adjuvant bile salt treatment in extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for the treatment of gall bladder stones.

The relative cost effectiveness of adjuvant urso and chenodeoxycholic acid treatment in extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL) has been assessed as part of a pragmatic randomised controlled trial of ESWL as a treatment of gall bladder stones. Of the first patients with gall stone volume < 4 cm3 randomised to ESWL in the main trial, 24 were randomised to have ESWL alone and 26 to have adjuvant bile acid treatment, one of whom died before the end of the 12 month follow up period. At 12 months after treatment, differences in gall stone clearance between ESWL alone (3/24 (13%) clear, 5 (21%) referred for surgery) and ESWL and bile acids (6/25 (24%) clear, 2 (8%) referred for surgery) were not significant (p = 0.36, log rank test). Patients in both groups had substantial and significant health gains (according to biliary pain frequency and severity, Nottingham Health Profile scores, visual analogue scale symptom scores, and complications) but there were no significant differences between the groups. Improvements in both groups usually occurred within a few weeks of treatment and were unrelated to gall stone clearance. Costs were greater in the bile salt group (95% confidence intervals for estimated cost difference: 90 pounds to 630 pounds). If the purpose of treatment is symptom relief rather than gall stone clearance then adjuvant bile salt treatment seems to be unnecessary.

Subjective health status of single homeless people in Sheffield.

A census of single homeless people was carried out over a single 12-hour period in Sheffield. Places of residence of homeless people were identified by local workers with homeless people. Participants completed a questionnaire designed to provide data relating to their demography, employment history, contact with welfare agencies, social status, prison history, past and family medical history, contact with health services, perceived health status as measured by the Nottingham Health Profile, and anxiety and depression measured using the Foulds Delusions Symptoms States Inventory/State of Anxiety and Depression DSSI/sAD. Three hundred and seventy-nine single homeless individuals were contacted. Reliable data were available on 340. The population was heterogeneous with respect to perceived health status, but it was significantly worse than a standard London population on all dimensions. Those with a self-reported history of psychiatric illness had a significantly worse perceived health status on all dimensions than those without such a history. Those reporting a history of admission to psychiatric hospital had a significantly worse status in two dimensions: mobility, reflecting greater age, and more significantly social isolation, consistent with findings in other de-institutionalised populations. Anxiety and depression, measured using the Foulds sAD scale, was raised in all groups in the study, but did not differentiate between those with and without a self-reported psychiatric history, or between those with and without a self-reported history of psychiatric admission. This suggests that these symptoms are a result rather than a cause of homelessness, and that a broad social solution to mental illness in homeless people is needed in addition to specific medical interventions.

Who are the homeless?

To describe the demographic, social and medical morbidity and usage of health services of the population of single homeless individuals in Sheffield, a census was carried out over a 12-hour period at sites which homeless people frequent, as identified by those who work with the homeless. These sites included Salvation Army hostels, reception centres, probation day centres, voluntary organisation hostels, and cheap bed and breakfast accommodation. Data were collected by means of a self-administered questionnaire. A total of 340 single homeless individuals were studied, constituting 80-90% of the single homeless population of Sheffield, as estimated by field workers. The population was younger than those of earlier studies and contained a higher proportion of females (14%). One-fifth of the population had been homeless for less than six months, and 60% had been at their present lodging for less than six months. The population has a higher proportion of both ex-prisoners (49%) and ex-inmates of psychiatric hospitals (36%). Over a quarter admit to a history of alcoholism, and 9% to a history of drug abuse; 65% of the population are registered locally with a GP, and 53% of the population see their GP. Those who are more likely to use an Accident and Emergency Department are less socially integrated and more likely to be alcoholic. This study of the single homeless highlights a need for social change to reduce poverty, provide cheap available housing and provide support for disadvantaged groups.

Nurse triage in theory and in practice.

'Nurse Triage' refers to the formal process of early assessment of patients attending an accident and emergency (A&E) department by a trained nurse, to ensure that they receive appropriate attention, in a suitable location, with the requisite degree of urgency. The benefits claimed for nurse triage include better patient outcomes, through clinical management reaching those in greatest need of it first. A recent study of nurse triage in a British A&E department failed to demonstrate the benefits claimed: patients undergoing triage were delayed, especially those in the most urgent groups. No differences were noted between the two study groups in levels of satisfaction with the A&E process. The results brought forth criticism from all quarters. In this paper the points made by the critics are considered, and an attempt to answer them is made.

Differences in priorities assigned to patients by triage nurses and by consultant physicians in accident and emergency departments.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether the greater urgency assigned to accident and emergency patients by triage nurses than by accident and emergency doctors was uniform across all patient groups. DESIGN: Patients attending an accident and emergency department between 8.00 am and 9.00 pm over a six week period were assessed prospectively for degree of urgency by triage nurses, and retrospectively for urgency by one of two consultant accident and emergency doctors. Patients were grouped according to their clinical mode of presentation. SETTING: An accident and emergency department of a district general hospital in the Midlands, UK, in 1990. PATIENTS: 1213 patients who presented over six weeks. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: As might be expected, patients' conditions were assessed as being more urgent prospectively than retrospectively. This finding, however, was not uniform across all patient groups. Nurses' assessments of urgency tended to favour children and patients who presented with eye complaints and gave less priority to medical cases, particularly those with cardiorespiratory symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have implications for all those involved in the organisation of triage systems and in the training of nurses in accident and emergency departments. It is essential that judgements on how urgently patients need to be seen are made in a completely objective manner.

Interferon alfa for chronic hepatitis C in haemophiliacs.

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) associated liver disease is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in haemophilia. Recombinant interferon alfa-2b was used in a randomised controlled liver biopsy trial to treat haemophiliacs with chronic HCV. All 18 patients entered had antibodies to HCV. During the first year of the study, 10 patients were randomised on the basis of histology to receive interferon alfa-2b, 3 million units subcutaneously, thrice weekly and eight to receive no treatment (control group). After 12 months, all patients had a second liver biopsy and the control group patients were offered interferon at the same dosage but for only six months. The alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity had returned to normal in four of 10 patients treated for one year and five of six patients treated for six months, compared with none of the eight patients in the control group (p < 0.01). Although the histological scores of the two groups were similar at entry into the study, after one year the biopsy specimens in the treated group showed significant improvement compared with controls (p < 0.01). It is concluded that interferon alfa-2b is effective in returning ALT values to normal and improving liver histology in at least 50% of patients treated.

Randomised controlled trial of cost-effectiveness of lithotripsy and open cholecystectomy as treatments for gallbladder stones.

Inpatient extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy for treatment of gallbladder stones has not previously been compared with open cholecystectomy in terms of cost-effectiveness. In a randomised controlled trial, 163 patients, stratified by gallstone bulk (over 4 cm3 or not), were randomised to lithotripsy or cholecystectomy (38 large-bulk and 27 small-bulk cholecystectomy; 37 large-bulk and 61 small-bulk lithotripsy) and followed up for 1 year. Both treatments gave significant health gains in terms of a reduction in episodes of biliary pain, improved perceived health status, and symptom relief, but few differences between treatments were found. There was some evidence that biliary-pain episodes were less severe after cholecystectomy. Cholecystectomy patients also had greater improvements in mean health gain for three related symptoms: vomiting, feeling sick, and fatty-food upset. However, there were no differences between groups in perceived health status. Among lithotripsy patients, health gain was not related to stone clearance. Lithotripsy was more expensive than cholecystectomy, principally because of the costs of the inpatient stay and adjuvant bile-salt therapy. Conventional lithotripsy appears at least as cost-effective as cholecystectomy for patients with small-bulk stones but less cost-effective for those with large-bulk stones. To some extent treatment choice can be guided by patient preference.

Piloting an evaluation of triage.

This paper takes a broad view of the work involved in pilot studies of evaluation research. Drawing on their experience of preparation for a field experiment in a British Accident and Emergency department, which was to evaluate the effectiveness of a nurse triage system, the authors stress the importance of careful observation of the system to be studied, in the environment in which it is to be studied. In addition, the usual evaluations of research instruments which comprise formal pilot studies are included.

Validating the SF-36 health survey questionnaire: new outcome measure for primary care.

OBJECTIVES: To test the acceptability, validity, and reliability of the short form 36 health survey questionnaire (SF-36) and to compare it with the Nottingham health profile. DESIGN: Postal survey using a questionnaire booklet together with a letter from the general practitioner. Non-respondents received two reminders at two week intervals. The SF-36 questionnaire was retested on a subsample of respondents two weeks after the first mailing. SETTING: Two general practices in Sheffield. PATIENTS: 1980 patients aged 16-74 years randomly selected from the two practice lists. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Scores for each health dimension on the SF-36 questionnaire and the Nottingham health profile. Response to questions on recent use of health services and sociodemographic characteristics. RESULTS: The response rate for the SF-36 questionnaire was high (83%) and the rate of completion for each dimension was over 95%. Considerable evidence was found for the reliability of the SF-36 (Cronbach's alpha greater than 0.85, reliability coefficient greater than 0.75 for all dimensions except social functioning) and for construct validity in terms of distinguishing between groups with expected health differences. The SF-36 was able to detect low levels of ill health in patients who had scored 0 (good health) on the Nottingham health profile. CONCLUSIONS: The SF-36 is a promising new instrument for measuring health perception in a general population. It is easy to use, acceptable to patients, and fulfils stringent criteria of reliability and validity. Its use in other contexts and with different disease groups requires further research.

Evaluation of nurse triage in a British accident and emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To compare formal nurse triage with an informal prioritisation process for waiting times and patient satisfaction. SETTING: Accident and emergency department of a district general hospital in the midlands in 1990. DESIGN: Patients attending between 8:00 am and 9:00 pm over six weeks were grouped for analysis according to whether triage was operating at time of presentation and by their degree of urgency as assessed retrospectively by an accident and emergency consultant. PATIENTS: 5954 patients presenting over six weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Time waited between first attendance in the department and obtaining medical attention, and patient satisfaction measured by questionnaire. RESULTS: Complete data on waiting time were collected on 5037 patients (85%). Only 1213 of the 2515 (48%) patients presenting during the triage period were seen by a triage nurse. Patients in the triage group waited longer than those in the no triage group in all four retrospective priority categories, though differences were significant for only the two most urgent categories (difference in median waiting time 10.5 (95% confidence interval 3.5 to 14) min for category 1 and 8.5 (3 to 12) min for category 2). Responses to the patient satisfaction questionnaire were similar in the two groups except for the question relating to anxiety relating to pain. CONCLUSIONS: This study fails to show the benefits claimed for formal nurse triage. Nurse triage may impose additional delay for patient treatment, particularly among patients needing the most urgent attention.

A randomized controlled trial of recombinant interferon-alpha in chronic hepatitis C in hemophiliacs.

Chronic liver disease associated with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in hemophilia. We have used recombinant interferon alpha-2b (IFN alpha-2b) in a randomized controlled liver biopsy trial to treat hemophiliacs with chronic hepatitis. Eighteen patients entered the study, 16 of whom were subsequently shown to have antibodies to the HCV. All underwent liver biopsy at entry and were randomized to either treatment with self-administered IFN alpha-2b, 3 million units subcutaneously thrice weekly (n = 10) or no treatment (control group) (n = 8). Nine subjects had chronic active hepatitis, seven had chronic persistent hepatitis, and two had cirrhosis. Twelve months after entry into the study 17 patients underwent a second liver biopsy. All biopsies were coded, assessed, and scored according to the histologic severity of the liver disease. Ten patients were administered IFN for 1 year, and in four patients normalization of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) occurred compared with none in the untreated group. After the second liver biopsy, six of the eight initial no-treatment patients were treated with interferon 3 million units thrice weekly for 6 months, and normalization of ALT was seen in five patients. Biochemical relapse within 4 months of stopping IFN occurred in one of four patients treated for 1 year and in four of five patients treated for 6 months. IFN treatment was well tolerated. Although the histologic scores of the two groups were similar at entry into the study, after 12 months the biopsy appearances in the treated group were significantly improved compared with the controls (P less than .01). Histologic improvement was noted in the three interferon-treated human immunodeficiency virus antibody-positive patients and also in other patients who had no biochemical response. We conclude that low-dose recombinant IFN alpha is effective in normalizing transaminases and improving the histologic appearances in at least 50% of hemophiliacs with chronic hepatitis C.

Peterborough Hospital at Home: an evaluation.

An evaluation of the Peterborough Hospital at Home scheme was undertaken to examine the complementary roles of Hospital at Home, hospital ward and the District Nursing Service. The evaluation involved two surveys; the first was a retrospective study of records of patients admitted to one of the three care settings during 1983. The second survey was a prospective study of Hospital at Home patients in 1985 with the index diagnoses of malignant neoplasms, cerebrovascular accidents and post-operative patients discharged early from hospital. In 1985, 284 patients were admitted to Hospital at Home, and of these the largest group (73 patients) were terminally ill cancer patients. Hospital at Home provided care for more severely ill patients than those normally looked after by the District Nursing Service, and comparable in severity and outcome to those in hospital. There was an emphasis on terminal care by Hospital at Home which would make it appear to be an enhancement to the usual domiciliary nursing services available, as, for the majority of the cancer patients cared for by Hospital at Home, admission to hospital would probably not be sought.

Census of single homeless people in Sheffield.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the number of single homeless people in Sheffield and to examine their demography and social and medical details. DESIGN: Census carried out between 8 am and 8 pm on one day. Participants completed a questionnaire designed to provide data relating to employment history, contact with welfare and health services, social state, prison history, medical history, and health state. SETTING: Sites in Sheffield identified by local workers as being places of residence of homeless people. SUBJECTS: 340 single homeless people. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Self reported history of alcohol or drug misuse, existence of a chronic medical condition, and use of general practitioner and hospital services. RESULTS: The mean age of the population was 42.5 years and a quarter of the population were aged less than 30; there were 48 women. Significant differences were noted between men and women with respect to self reported psychiatric illness (77/266 men v 27/42 women), self reported alcoholism (83/273 v 4/44), prison history (152/255 v 8/41), and registration with a general practitioner (73/275 v 38/46). Various chronic medical conditions were reported, and the perceived health state of the population was low; 129 claimed to have been admitted to a psychiatric hospital. 220 people were registered with a general practitioner, and 179 claimed to see their doctor. Sixty five had attended or been admitted to a general hospital in the month preceding the study, 45 for accident and emergency services. CONCLUSIONS: The homeless in this population were younger than those found in previous studies. The prevalence of psychiatric illness was high in the population, and the overall health state was poor. Most subjects obtained health services from general practitioners.

Use of non-orthodox and conventional health care in Great Britain.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the characteristics of patients using non-orthodox health care and their pattern of use of conventional health care with respect to a particular problem. DESIGN: Postal survey of all 2152 practitioners of acupuncture, chiropractic, homeopathy, naturopathy, and osteopathy identified from 11 national professional association registers. Patients attending a representative sample of 101 responding practitioners completed questionnaires covering demographic characteristics, presenting problems, and use of the health service. SETTING: Practices of practitioners of non-orthodox health care in England, Scotland, and Wales. SUBJECTS: Qualified, non-medical practitioners of non-orthodox health care working in Great Britain and 2473 patients who had attended one of the sampled practitioners in an allocated time period between August 1987 and July 1988. RESULTS: An estimated 1909 practitioners were actively practising one of the study treatments in Great Britain in 1987. Of the estimated 70,600 patients seen by this group of practitioners in an average week, most (78%) were attending with a musculoskeletal problem. Two thirds of the patients were women. Only 2% were aged under 16, but 15% were aged 65 or over. One in three patients had not received previous conventional care for their main problem; 18% were receiving concurrent non-orthodox and conventional care. Twenty two per cent of the patients reported having seen their general practitioner for any reason in the two weeks before the surveyed consultation. CONCLUSIONS: Patients of non-orthodox health care, as provided by this group of practitioners, had not turned their backs on conventional health care. Non-orthodox treatment was sought for a limited range of problems and used most frequently as a supplement to orthodox medicine.

Estimates of general practitioner workload: a review.

This paper reviews four studies sponsored by the Department of Health which have attempted to measure workload in general practice and compares these with data from the general household survey. Despite the considerable differences in the objectives and methods employed by the four studies, they were found to contain remarkably consistent measurements of general practitioner workload. In a 'normal working week' general practitioners spend 38 hours on general medical service duties (including 24 hours of patient contact and five hours of travel to home visits), they see 150 patients or their representatives in surgery, and make 26 home visits. In an 'annual average week', taking into account holidays and sick leave, general practitioners undertake 90% of this workload. The studies show consistently large variations in the workload of general practitioners measured in this way, but fail to identify the key determinants of such variations. The reasons underlying the variation in general practitioner workload will remain unclear until we can distinguish between the expected, measurable variation and the residual, unexplained variation which may be due to the personal preferences of general practitioners.

Predictive markers of chronic liver disease in hemophilia.

In an attempt to predict progressive liver damage in hemophiliac patients by noninvasive means, we conducted a retrospective analysis of clinical and laboratory data from 44 liver biopsies taken from 35 hemophiliac patients. This showed that serum IgG was normal in patients with chronic persistent hepatitis (CPH) but significantly elevated in those with chronic active hepatitis (CAH) or cirrhosis (CIR) (P less than .001). Relationships were less significant between liver histology and IgM (P less than .01), IgA (P less than .05), and globulin (P less than .05). This was unaffected by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antibody status in asymptomatic individuals. Although patients with progressive liver disease were also older than those with CPH (P less than .001), the immunoglobulin abnormalities were independent of this. Neither clinical examination nor liver biochemistry at the time of biopsy were of significant diagnostic value. Our results indicate that in the absence of AIDS an elevated IgG level is a reliable indicator of progressive hemophilic liver disease.