An Episodic Plot and an Unhappy Ending: What Emotional Sound Patterns Reveal About the Structure of Coleridge's Rime of the Ancyent Marinere.

Pleasant sounds (phonemes) within Coleridge's 1798 Rime of the Ancyent Marinere were employed to study the poem's structure in terms of the Aristotelean concepts of fortune (many pleasant emotions/phonemes) and misfortune (few) and to address questions as to how the poem doubled in length shortly before publication. The distribution of emotionally pleasant phonemes such as long e (i), l, v, and th (θ) indicated the presence of a (likely original) poem with a pleasant ending where the albatross drops from the mariner's neck. Three episodes of threat and escape were probably added to the albatross episode later, along with an unhappy ending. Significant differences in the proportion of pleasant phonemes employed in various sections support these conclusions.

What can a string of letters possibly mean when it is not a word? Speech sounds as one answer to the search for meaning in Finnegans Wake.

In his last novel, Finnegans Wake, James Joyce attempted to redirect readers' search for meaning away from traditional paths by using many non-words (combinations, foreign words, neologisms, and onomatopoeic words). Words and non-words in the novel were analyzed in terms of the emotional meanings of their constituent sounds using the model developed by Whissell where motor responses involved in enunciating sounds are associated with their emotional meaning. Significant sound-emotion differences were identified among and within chapters. "Smiling" pleasant long e (as in "tee") was used at higher rates in successive chapters and "sighing" passive AO (as in "Shaun") was used at especially high rates in Chapters 8 ("Anna Livia Plurabelle") and 12 ("Mamalujo"). Sound emotionality is one of the alternative paths to meaning in the novel.

The search for cognitive terminology: an analysis of comparative psychology journal titles.

This research examines the employment of cognitive or mentalist words in the titles of articles from three comparative psychology journals (Journal of Comparative Psychology, International Journal of Comparative Psychology, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes; 8,572 titles, >100,000 words). The Dictionary of Affect in Language, coupled with a word search of titles, was employed to demonstrate cognitive creep. The use of cognitive terminology increased over time (1940-2010) and the increase was especially notable in comparison to the use of behavioral words, highlighting a progressively cognitivist approach to comparative research. Problems associated with the use of cognitive terminology in this domain include a lack of operationalization and a lack of portability. There were stylistic differences among journals including an increased use of words rated as pleasant and concrete across years for Journal of Comparative Psychology, and a greater use of emotionally unpleasant and concrete words in Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes.

Titles in highly ranked multidisciplinary psychology journals 1966-2011: more words and punctuation marks allow for the communication of more information.

Titles of articles in seven highly ranked multidisciplinary psychology journals for every fifth year between 1966 and 2011 (inclusive) were studied in terms of title length, word length, punctuation density, and word pleasantness, activation, and concreteness (assessed by the Dictionary of Affect in Language). Titles grew longer (by three words) and were more frequently punctuated (by one colon or comma for every other article) between 1966 and 2011. This may reflect the increasing complexity of psychology and satisfy readers' requirements for more specific information. There were significant differences among journals (e.g., titles in the Annual Review of Psychology were scored by the Dictionary of Affect as the most pleasant, and those in Psychological Bulletin as the least pleasant) and among categories of journals (e.g., titles in review journals employed longer words than those in research or association journals). Differences were stable across time and were employed to successfully categorize titles from a validation sample.

The trend toward more attractive and informative titles: American Psychologist 1946-2010.

Titles of journal articles serve to attract attention and inform potential readers. All titles from 65 volumes of American Psychologist (1946-2010, N = 12,313 titles) were studied in terms of their emotionality, style, and contents. Several trends noted for titles in different kinds of journals from psychology and other disciplines were present in American Psychologist (increasing title length, increasing use of punctuation marks, increasing employment of words with pleasant and arousing connotations, variations in the frequency of different content words). Longer titles allow authors to specify more information, and emotionally upbeat titles are more likely to attract reader attention. In an unexpected quadratic trend, titles became more abstract and the number of titles increased until about 1985, after which the trend was reversed and titles became more concrete as their numbers decreased. Predictors of this trend include societal variables and the journal's editorial policies.

Sound and emotion in Milton's Paradise lost.

This research was designed to test the hypothesis that Milton's poem Paradise Lost is meaningfully patterned with respect to sound. Thirty-six segments from 12 Books of Paradise Lost were scored (Whissell, 2000) in terms of their proportional use of Pleasant, Cheerful, Active, Nasty, Unpleasant, Sad, Passive, and Soft sounds. Paradise Lost includes more Active, Nasty, and Unpleasant sounds and fewer Pleasant, Passive, Soft, and Sad sounds than a representative sample of anthologized poetry. The way in which emotional sounds are patterned (e.g., the rise and fall in the proportion of Pleasant sounds across Books) suggests the presence of three narratives within the work: Sin and Salvation-Foreseen in Heaven (Books I-II), The Fall of Man (Books IV-IX), and Sin and Salvation-Foretold on Earth (Books X-XI). The poem analyzed had updated spelling, and the author's exact intentions when creating it are not accessible to direct investigation, for this among other reasons.

Explaining inconsistencies in Shakespeare's character Henry V on the basis of the emotional undertones of his speeches.

Shakespeare's character Henry V is infamous, among 20th-century analysts of drama, for his inconsistent disposition. Some analysts highlight this character's reformation and others his Machiavellian tendency to moderate his disposition in tune with changing situations. The Dictionary of Affect in Language (Whissell, 2009) was used to score the emotional undertones of words in Henry V's dialogue. Analyses of these undertones, described in terms of Pleasantness and Activation, demonstrated that the character Henry V was, in overall terms, emotionally average, that there was minimal evidence of growth or reform in him across time, and that situational factors (e.g., revelry, kingship, courtship, battle) were associated with the dramatic changes in his speeches. The character employed more passive language in private and personal situations and more active language in his (public) royal role. Four categories of Henry V's speeches (Condescension, Control, Self-definition, and the Courtship of Good Opinion), represented in both public and private discourse, reflected increasing pleasantness in emotional undertones.

Challenging an authorial attribution: vocabulary and emotion in a translation of Goethe's Faust attributed to Samuel Taylor Coleridge.

This article disputes the stylometric attribution of an anonymous English 1821 translation of Goethe's German verse drama Faust to the poet an critic Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The translation was compared to four known Coleridgean dramas, two of which were translations from German. Evidence challenging Coleridge's authorship came from words used proportionally more often by Coleridge, words used proportionally more often by the unknown translator, differential employment of parallel word forms ("O" and "hath" for Coleridge, "oh" and "has" for the translator), and differences in the undertones of the two vocabularies, as measured by the Dictionary of Affect in Language (Coleridge's undertones were less pleasant and more abstract). Some problems with the stylometry of the challenged attribution to Coleridge are noted.

Poet interrupted: differences in the emotionality and imagery of Byron's poetry associated with his turbulent mid-career years in England.

The Dictionary of Affect in Language was employed to compare two parts of Byron's Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, written before and after an interruption of several turbulent years in England. The post-interruption part of the poem employed fewer extreme emotional words and more abstract words than the pre-interruption part. In a second analysis, poems written during the interruption and poems written before and after Childe Harold were examined, along with it, in terms of emotion, imagery, and linguistic richness. Two variables--year and an interruption dummy coded as 1 for publications between 1812.5 and 1816.17--predicted observed differences accurately. Byron's poetry became linguistically richer, more abstract, and less passionate across time, and it was emotionally more negative and linguistically simpler during the turbulent years. Differences between the two parts of Childe Harold were best explained on the basis of time-dependent growth curves rather than the interruption.

Emotion and the humors: scoring and classifying major characters from Shakespeare's comedies on the basis of their language.

The theory of humors, which was the prevalent theory of affect in Shakespeare's day, was used to explain both states (moods, emotions) and traits (personalities). This article reports humoral scores appropriate to the major characters of Shakespeare's comedies. The Dictionary of Affect in Language was used to score all words (N = 180,243) spoken by 105 major characters in 13 comedies in terms of their emotional undertones. These were translated into humoral scores. Translation was possible because emotional undertones, humor, and personality (e.g., Eysenck's model) are defined by various axes in the same two-dimensional space. Humoral scores differed for different types of characters, e.g., Shakespeare's lovers used more Sanguine language and his clowns more Melancholy language than other characters. A study of Kate and Petruchio from The Taming of the Shrew demonstrated state-like changes in humor for characters as the play unfolded.

Using the Revised Dictionary of Affect in Language to quantify the emotional undertones of samples of natural language.

Whissell's Dictionary of Affect in Language, originally designed to quantify the Pleasantness and Activation of specifically emotional words, was revised to increase its applicability to samples of natural language. Word selection for the revision privileged natural language, and the matching rate of the Dictionary, which includes 8,742 words, was increased to 90%. Dictionary scores were available for 9 of every 10 words in most language samples. A third rated dimension (Imagery) was added, and normative scores were obtained for natural English. Evidence supports the reliability and validity of ratings. Two sample applications to very disparate instances of natural language are described. The revised Dictionary, which contains ratings for words characteristic of natural language, is a portable tool that can be applied in almost any situation involving language.

Emotional fluctuations in Bob Dylan's lyrics measured by the dictionary of affect accompany events and phases in his life.

Lyrics for Bob Dylan's songs between 1962 and 2001 (close to 100,000 words) were scored with the help of the Dictionary of Affect in Language (Whissell, 2006). Means for Pleasantness, Activation, and Imagery are reported for 22 Blocks characterizing this time span. Significant but weak differences across Blocks were found for all three measures at the level of individual words. Emotional fluctuations in words included in Bob Dylan's lyrics accompanied events and phases in his life, although they were not entirely dictated by these events. Dylan used more highly Imaged and more Active words at times when his work was critically acclaimed. More Passive word choices characterized times of prolonged stress, and more Pleasant choices times of experimentation. Dylan's three popularity peaks were used to divide the singer's career into three stages (rhetor, poet, sage) which differed in terms of pronouns used.

A comparison of two lists providing emotional norms for English words (ANEW and the DAL).

Although different in terms of purpose, word-selection procedures, and rating scales, both the ANEW (n = 1034) and DAL (n = 8742) lists, which have 633 words in common, provide normative emotional ratings for English words. This research compared the lists and cross-validated the two main lexical dimensions of affect. Parallel representatives of the two dimensions (Valence and Pleasantness, Arousal and Activation) were correlated across lists (rs = .86, .63). In tune with their separate purposes, the ANEW list, which was designed to describe emotional words, included more rare words, while the DAL, which was designed for natural language applications, included more common ones. The Valence-Activation scatterplot for ANEW was C-shaped and included fewer Arousing words of medium Valence, such as "awake," "debate," and "proves," while the DAL included fewer less common words descriptive of emotion such as "maniac," "corrupt," and "lavish." In view of these differences, list similarities strongly support the generalizability of the two main lexical dimensions of affect.

The distinct emotional flavor of Gnostic writings from the early Christian era.

More than 500,000 scored words in 83 documents were used to conclude that it is possible to identify the source of documents (proto-orthodox Christian versus early Gnostic) on the basis of the emotions underlying the words. Twenty-seven New Testament works and seven Gnostic documents (including the gospels of Thomas, Judas, and Mary [Magdalene]) were scored with the Dictionary of Affect in Language. Patterns of emotional word use focusing on eight types of extreme emotional words were employed in a discriminant function analysis to predict source. Prediction was highly successful (canonical r = .81, 97% correct identification of source). When the discriminant function was tested with more than 30 additional Gnostic and Christian works including a variety of translations and some wisdom books, it correctly classified all of them. The majority of the predictive power of the function (97% of all correct categorizations, 70% of the canonical r2) was associated with the preferential presence of passive and passive/pleasant words in Gnostic documents.

Quantifying genre: an operational definition of tragedy and comedy based on Shakespeare's plays.

Emotion and imagery in the words of Shakespeare's plays, as measured by the Dictionary of Affect in Language, were used to predict genre (tragedy or comedy). Genre distinctions, which were associated with small effect sizes, were established on the basis of 23 plays and then applied to other plays. A discriminant function which combined lower emotional Pleasantness with higher emotional Activation or arousal and more pictorial Imagery successfully (91% of the time) predicted whether a play was a tragedy or a comedy. The genre-discriminating formula provided meaningful categorizations of 23 additional plays. As hypothesized, comedies employed more Pleasant words than tragedies. Tragedies employed more Active words (p < .001). Unexpectedly, comedies rather than tragedies employed words with lower Imagery (greater Abstraction). The predicted elevation of language in tragedy was noted instead in the use of more verse, fewer common words, and fewer personal pronouns (less subjectivity).

Word emotionality and the structure of the Old Testament book of Ruth.

Words in the World English Bible version of the book of Ruth were studied in terms of their emotional implications using the Dictionary of Affect in Language which matched 2,225 (89%) of the words. The use of extremely Passive/Unpleasant words and that of extremely Pleasant words gave evidence of a V and inverse-V structure, respectively. Ruth was gentle in tone, containing 188% of the normative proportion of Pleasant/Passive words and approximately 50% of the normative proportion of various active and unpleasant categories of words.

Historical and socioeconomic predictors of the emotional associations of sounds in popular names.

The 10 most popular boys' and girls' names for most years of the 20th century were studied by Whissell in terms of the emotional associations of their sounds and their pronounceability. A set of historical and socioeconomic variables, namely, war, depression, the advent of the birth control pill, inflation, and year predicted component scores for name length, emotionality, and pronounceability. There were significant low-to-medium strength correlations among predictors and criteria, and prediction was significant in four of the six models. For example, the inclusion of Positive Emotional sounds in women's names was predicted with R2 = .73 from a formula emphasizing the advent of the pill (beta = 1.58) and year (beta = -1.56).

Comparison of the books of the New Testament (English Translation) in terms of emotion and word use.

The 27 books of the New Testament (English Translation) were scored using the Dictionary of Affect in Language. Books were compared with one another in terms of Activation, Pleasantness, and Imagery scores, and in terms of word length, use of the word "love," and mentions of Jesus. Significant differences among books were evident for all variables. A table of means and standard errors is provided. Measures of the books were related to one another, e.g., Pleasantness score and the use of the word "love" (p=.80) and to descriptors of the books, e.g., longer books tended to score lower on Pleasantness (p = -.79).

Geographical and political predictors of emotion in the sounds of favorite baby names.

The top 5 favorite boys' and girls' names from each state of the USA in 2000 and 2003 were analyzed in terms of the emotional associations of their component sounds and sound pronounceability. These were significantly and variously correlated with a historical factor (year), geographic factors (compass directions), and a political factor (percentage of the popular vote cast for President Bush in 2004). The expected stereotypical sex differences were observed: girls' names were longer, more pleasant, less active, and easier to pronounce (p < .01). It was possible to predict emotional associations and pronounceability (R2 = .27-.48, p < .01) on the basis of historical, geographical, and political variables.

Emotion in the sounds of pets' names.

Several thousand cats' and dogs' names were compared with each other and with several thousand men's and women's names in terms of their use of various sounds and the emotional associations of these sounds. Emotional associations were scored according to the system developed by Whissell in 2000. In general, cats' names stood in comparison to dogs' names as women's names stood in comparison to men's names. Names from the first group in each pairing included more pleasant and soft phonemes and fewer unpleasant and sad ones than those in the second group (one-way analyses of variance with post hoc LSD tests, p < .0001). As well, pets' names were longer and more easily pronounced by children than the human names (p < .0001).