Effect of early two-dose measles vaccination on childhood mortality and modification by maternal measles antibody in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa: A single-centre open-label randomised controlled trial.

Background: Early 2-dose measles vaccine (MV) at 4 and 9 months of age vs. the WHO strategy of MV at 9 months of age reduced all-cause child mortality in a previous trial. We aimed to test two hypotheses: 1) a 2-dose strategy reduces child mortality between 4 and 60 months of age by 30%; 2) receiving early MV at 4 months in the presence versus absence of maternal measles antibodies (MatAb) reduces child mortality by 35%. Methods: Single-centre open-label community-based randomised controlled trial in Guinea-Bissau, with 2:1 block-randomisation by sex to a 2-dose (4 + 9 months) vs. 1-dose (9 months) MV strategy. Healthy children were eligible 4 weeks after the 3rd diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-containing vaccine. Before randomisation a blood sample was collected to determine MatAb level. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality. Hazard ratios (HR) were derived from Cox regression in the per protocol population. We tested for interactions with national campaigns with oral polio vaccine (C-OPV). Trial registration: NCT01486355. Findings: Between August 2011-April 17th 2015, 6,636 children were enroled, 6,598[n2-dose=4,397; n1-dose=2,201] were included in the analysis of the primary outcome, The HR(2-dose/1-dose) between 4 and 60 months was 1.38 (95%CI: 0.92-2.06) [deaths: n2-dose=90; n1-dose=33]. Before the 9-month MV and the HR(1-dose/no dose) was 0.94 (0.45-1.96) [deaths: n2-dose=21; n1-dose=11]. The HR(2-dose/1-dose) was 0.81 (0.29-2.22) for children, who received no C-OPV [deaths/children: n2-dose=10/2,801; n1-dose=6/1,365], and 4.73 (1.44-15.6) for children, who received C-OPV before and after enrolment (p for interaction=0.027) [deaths/children: n2-dose=27/1,602; n1-dose=3/837]. In the 2-dose group receiving early MV at 4 months, mortality was 50% (20-68%) lower for those vaccinated in the presence of MatAb vs. the absence of MatAb [deaths/children: nMatAb=51/3,132; nnoMatAb=31/1,028]. Interpretation: The main result contrasts with previous findings but may, though based on a small number of events, be explained by frequent OPV campaigns that reduced the mortality rate, but apparently interacted negatively with early MV. The beneficial non-specific effects of MV in the presence of MatAb should be investigated further. Funding: ERC, Danish National Research Foundation, the Danish Council for Development Research, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Novo Nordisk Foundation, European Union and the Lundbeck Foundation.

Sex-Differential Impact of Human Cytomegalovirus Infection on In Vitro Reactivity to Toll-Like Receptor 2, 4 and 7/8 Stimulation in Gambian Infants.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection rates approach 100% by the first year of life in low-income countries. It is not known if this drives changes to innate immunity in early life and thereby altered immune reactivity to infections and vaccines. Given the panoply of sex differences in immunity, it is feasible that any immunological effects of HCMV would differ in males and females. We analysed ex vivo innate cytokine responses to a panel of toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands in 108 nine-month-old Gambian males and females participating in a vaccine trial. We found evidence that HCMV suppressed reactivity to TLR2 and TLR7/8 stimulation in females but not males. This is likely to contribute to sex differences in responses to infections and vaccines in early life and has implications for the development of TLR ligands as vaccine adjuvants. Development of an effective HCMV vaccine would be able to circumvent some of these potentially negative effects of HCMV infection in childhood.

Limited Impact of Human Cytomegalovirus Infection in African Infants on Vaccine-Specific Responses Following Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis and Measles Vaccination.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection has a profound effect on the human immune system, causing massive clonal expansion of CD8, and to a lesser extend CD4 T cells. The few human trials that have explored the effect of HCMV infection on responses to vaccination are conflicting, with some studies suggesting no effect whilst others suggest decreased or increased immune responses. Recent studies indicate substantial differences in overall immune system reactivity to vaccines based on age and sex, particularly cellular immunity. 225 nine-month old Gambian infants were immunized with diphtheria-tetanus-whole cell pertussis and/or measles vaccines. HCMV infection status was determined by the presence of CMV DNA by PCR of urine samples prior to vaccination. The effect of HCMV infection on either protective antibody immunity or vaccine-specific and overall cellular immune responses 4 weeks post-vaccination was determined, further stratified by sex. Tetanus toxoid-specific antibody responses were significantly lower in HCMV+ infants compared to their HCMV- counterparts, while pertussis, diphtheria and measles antibody responses were generally comparable between the groups. Responses to general T cell stimulation with anti-CD3/anti-CD28 as well as antigen-specific cytokine responses to purified protein derivative (PPD) were broadly suppressed in infants infected with HCMV but, perhaps surprisingly, there was only a minimal impact on antigen-specific cellular responses to vaccine antigens. There was evidence for subtle sex differences in the effects of HCMV infection, in keeping with the emerging evidence suggesting sex differences in homeostatic immunity and in responses to vaccines. This study reassuringly suggests that the high rates of HCMV infection in low income settings have little clinically significant impact on antibody and cellular responses to early life vaccines, while confirming the importance of sex stratification in such studies.

Measles Vaccination in Presence of Measles Antibody May Enhance Child Survival.

Background: In trials of early two-dose measles vaccination (MV), with the first dose being given before 9 months of age, vaccination in the presence of maternal antibody reduced mortality 2- to 3-fold compared with MV in the presence of no measles antibody. We tested this finding in two historical studies in which the children had received one dose of MV. Methods: We used data from a surveillance study of seroconversion after standard-titer MV (Schwarz strain) (Study 1) and a trial of early medium-titer MV (Edmonston-Zagreb strain) in which a pre-vaccination blood sample had been collected (Study 2). Both studies had control children, who were enrolled under similar conditions, but did not receive effective MV. Study 1 was a natural experiment where all children measles vaccinated during 1 month did not seroconvert and had therefore received an ineffective vaccine. In Study 2, the controls were randomized to an inactivated polio vaccine (IPV). We compared mortality for children with undetectable levels of measles antibody (<31.25 mIU) at baseline with children with detectable levels (≥31.25 mIU). Results: In both studies, children who were measles vaccinated in the presence of measles antibody had lower mortality compared with children who were measles vaccinated in presence of no measles antibody, the combined mortality rate ratio (MRR) being 0.51 (0.27-0.96). In the control groups, a detectable level of measles antibody vs. an undetectable level was not associated with lower mortality, the MRR being 1.40 (0.31-6.38). Conclusion: The results supported previous findings: measles vaccination in the presence of measles antibody had beneficial effects on child survival. Since maternal antibody levels are declining, it may be time to consider giving MV earlier and/or to provide MV to adolescent girls to boost antibody levels.

A Two-Center Randomized Trial of an Additional Early Dose of Measles Vaccine: Effects on Mortality and Measles Antibody Levels.

Background: In addition to protecting against measles, measles vaccine (MV) may have beneficial nonspecific effects. We tested the effect of an additional early MV on mortality and measles antibody levels. Methods: Children aged 4-7 months at rural health and demographic surveillance sites in Burkina Faso and Guinea-Bissau were randomized 1:1 to an extra early standard dose of MV (Edmonston-Zagreb strain) or no extra MV 4 weeks after the third diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis-hepatitis B-Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine. All children received routine MV at 9 months. We assessed mortality through home visits and compared mortality from enrollment to age 3 years using Cox proportional hazards models, censoring for subsequent nontrial MV. Subgroups of participants had blood sampled to assess measles antibody levels. Results: Among 8309 children enrolled from 18 July 2012 to 3 December 2015, we registered 145 deaths (mortality rate: 16/1000 person-years). The mortality was lower than anticipated and did not differ by randomization group (hazard ratio, 1.05; 95% confidence interval, 0.75-1.46). At enrollment, 4% (16/447) of children in Burkina Faso and 21% (90/422) in Guinea-Bissau had protective measles antibody levels. By age 9 months, no measles-unvaccinated/-unexposed child had protective levels, while 92% (306/333) of early MV recipients had protective levels. At final follow-up, 98% (186/189) in the early MV group and 97% (196/202) in the control group had protective levels. Conclusions: Early MV did not reduce all-cause mortality. Most children were susceptible to measles infection at age 4-7 months and responded with high antibody levels to early MV. Clinical Trials Registration: NCT01644721.

KIR content genotypes associate with carriage of hepatitis B surface antigen, e antigen and HBV viral load in Gambians.

BACKGROUND: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) causes over 800,000 deaths worldwide annually, mainly in low income countries, and incidence is rising rapidly in the developed world with the spread of hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses. Natural Killer (NK) cells protect against viral infections and tumours by killing abnormal cells recognised by Killer-cell Immunoglobulin-like Receptors (KIR). Thus genes and haplotypes encoding these receptors may be important in determining both outcome of initial hepatitis infection and subsequent chronic liver disease and tumour formation. HBV is highly prevalent in The Gambia and the commonest cause of liver disease. The Gambia Liver Cancer Study was a matched case-control study conducted between September 1997 and January 2001 where cases with liver disease were identified in three tertiary referral hospitals and matched with out-patient controls with no clinical evidence of liver disease. METHODS: We typed 15 KIR genes using the polymerase chain reaction with sequence specific primers (PCR-SSP) in 279 adult Gambians, 136 with liver disease (HCC or Cirrhosis) and 143 matched controls. We investigated effects of KIR genotypes and haplotypes on HBV infection and associations with cirrhosis and HCC. RESULTS: Homozygosity for KIR group A gene-content haplotype was associated with HBsAg carriage (OR 3.7, 95% CI 1.4-10.0) whilst telomeric A genotype (t-AA) was associated with reduced risk of e antigenaemia (OR 0.2, 95% CI 0.0-0.6) and lower viral loads (mean log viral load 5.2 vs. 6.9, pc = 0.022). One novel telomeric B genotype (t-ABx2) containing KIR3DS1 (which is rare in West Africa) was also linked to e antigenaemia (OR 8.8, 95% CI 1.3-60.5). There were no associations with cirrhosis or HCC. CONCLUSION: Certain KIR profiles may promote clearance of hepatitis B surface antigen whilst others predispose to e antigen carriage and high viral load. Larger studies are necessary to quantify the effects of individual KIR genes, haplotypes and KIR/HLA combinations on long-term viral carriage and risk of liver cancer. KIR status could potentially inform antiviral therapy and identify those at increased risk of complications for enhanced surveillance.

Negative Correlation between Circulating CD4+FOXP3+CD127- Regulatory T Cells and Subsequent Antibody Responses to Infant Measles Vaccine but Not Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis Vaccine Implies a Regulatory Role.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a key homeostatic role by suppressing immune responses. They have been targeted in mouse and human cancer studies to improve vaccine immunogenicity and tumor clearance. A number of commercially available drugs and experimental vaccine adjuvants have been shown to target Tregs. Infants have high numbers of Tregs and often have poor responses to vaccination, yet the role Tregs play in controlling vaccine immunogenicity has not been explored in this age group. Herein, we explore the role of CD4+FOXP3+CD127- Tregs in controlling immunity in infant males and females to vaccination with diphtheria-tetanus-whole cell pertussis (DTP) and/or measles vaccine (MV). We find correlative evidence that circulating Tregs at the time of vaccination suppress antibody responses to MV but not DTP; and Tregs 4 weeks after DTP vaccination may suppress vaccine-specific cellular immunity. This opens the exciting possibility that Tregs may provide a future target for improved vaccine responses in early life, including reducing the number of doses of vaccine required. Such an approach would need to be safe and the benefits outweigh the risks, thus further research in this area is required.

Does oral polio vaccine have non-specific effects on all-cause mortality? Natural experiments within a randomised controlled trial of early measles vaccine.

BACKGROUND: BCG and measles vaccine (MV) may have beneficial non-specific effects (NSEs). If an unplanned intervention with a vaccine (a natural experiment) modifies the estimated effect in a randomised controlled trial (RCT), this suggests NSEs. We used this approach to test NSEs of triple oral polio vaccine (OPV). METHODS: During an RCT of 2 doses of MV at 4.5 and 9 months versus 1 dose of MV at 9 months of age, we experienced 2 natural experiments with OPV. We assessed whether these OPV experiments modified the effect of 2-dose MV in the MV trial. SETTING: MV RCT conducted in urban Guinea-Bissau 2003-2009. INTERVENTIONS: Natural experiments with OPV due to missing vaccine and the implementation of OPV campaigns. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Changes in the mortality rate ratio (MRR) for 2-dose MV versus 1-dose MV. RESULTS: First, the MRR (2-dose/1-dose MV) overall was 0.70 (0.52 to 0.94), but the MRR was 1.04 (0.53 to 2.04) when OPV at birth (OPV0) was not given, suggesting that early priming with OPV was important for the effect of 2-dose MV. The effect of OPV0 depended on age of administration; the MRR (2-dose/1-dose MV) was 0.45 (0.29 to 0.71) for children receiving OPV0 in the first week of life, but 3.63 (0.87 to 15.2) for those receiving OPV0 after the first month of life (p=0.007, test of no interaction). Second, campaign-OPV may have reduced the difference between the randomisation groups since the MRR (2-dose/1-dose MV) was 0.60 (0.42 to 0.85) for children who had not received campaign-OPV before RCT-enrolment versus 0.72 (0.23 to 2.31) and 1.42 (0.70 to 2.90) for children who had received 1 or 2 doses of campaign-OPV-before-enrolment, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Bissau had no polio infection during this trial, so OPV0 and campaign-OPV may have NSEs since they modified the effect of 2-dose MV in an RCT. Different interventions may interact to a much larger effect than usually assumed.

Randomized Trials Comparing Inactivated Vaccine After Medium- or High-titer Measles Vaccine With Standard Titer Measles Vaccine After Inactivated Vaccine: A Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Observational studies have suggested that girls have higher mortality if their most recent immunization is an inactivated vaccine rather than a live vaccine. We therefore reanalyzed 5 randomized trials of early measles vaccine (MV) in which it was possible to compare an inactivated vaccines [after medium-titer MV (MTMV) or high-titer MV (HTMV)] and a live standard titer MV (after an initial inactivated vaccine). METHODS: The trials were conducted in Sudan, Senegal, The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau. The intervention group received live MTMV or HTMV from 4 to 5 months and then an inactivated vaccine from 9 to 10 months of age; the control children received inactivated vaccine/placebo from 4 to 5 months and standard titer MV from 9 to 10 months of age. We compared mortality from 9 months until end of study at 3 to 5 years of age for children who received inactivated vaccine (after MTMV or HTMV) and standard titer MV (after inactivated vaccine), respectively. The original datasets were analyzed using a Cox proportional hazards model stratified by trial. RESULTS: The mortality rate ratio (MRR) was 1.38 (95% confidence interval: 1.05-1.83) after an inactivated vaccine (after MTMV or HTMV) compared with a standard titer MV (after inactivated vaccine). Girls had a MRR of 1.89 (1.27-2.80), whereas there was no effect for boys, the sex-differential effect being significant (P = 0.02). Excluding measles cases did not alter these conclusions, the MRR after inactivated vaccines (after MTMV or HTMV) being 1.40 (1.06-1.86) higher overall and 1.92 (1.29-2.86) for girls. Control for variations in national immunization schedules for other vaccines did not modify these results. CONCLUSIONS: After 9 months of age, all children had been immunized against measles, and mortality in girls was higher when they had received inactivated vaccines (after MTMV or HTMV) rather than live standard titer MV (after an inactivated vaccine).

Revaccination with Live Attenuated Vaccines Confer Additional Beneficial Nonspecific Effects on Overall Survival: A Review.

BACKGROUND: Live vaccines against measles (MV), tuberculosis (BCG), polio (OPV) and smallpox reduce mortality more than explained by target-disease prevention. The beneficial nonspecific effects (NSEs) of MV are strongest when MV is given in presence of maternal antibodies. We therefore hypothesised that revaccination in presence of prior immunity enhances beneficial NSEs. METHODS: Literature search for studies of revaccination and mortality. FINDINGS: In two randomised trials (RCTs), two doses versus one dose of MV reduced all-cause mortality by 63% (95% CI: 23-83%) from 9 to 18months of age. In a quasi-experimental study two doses before and after 9months compared with one dose of MV after 9months of age reduced mortality by 59% (25-81%). BCG-revaccination significantly enhanced BCG's effect against overall child mortality in two RCTs. In a natural experiment study of OPV campaigns over a 13-year-period in Guinea-Bissau, each additional dose of OPV was associated with a 13% (4-21%) reduction in mortality rate. The beneficial NSEs of smallpox vaccination for survival increased significantly with the number of smallpox vaccination scars. INTERPRETATION: Revaccination with live vaccines led to substantial reductions in overall mortality. These findings challenge current understanding of vaccines and may explain the beneficial effects of campaigns with live vaccines.

The presence of prolines in the flanking region of an immunodominant HIV-2 gag epitope influences the quality and quantity of the epitope generated.

Both the recognition of HIV-infected cells and the immunogenicity of candidate CTL vaccines depend on the presentation of a peptide epitope at the cell surface, which in turn depends on intracellular antigen processing. Differential antigen processing maybe responsible for the differences in both the quality and the quantity of epitopes produced, influencing the immunodominance hierarchy of viral epitopes. Previously, we showed that the magnitude of the HIV-2 gag-specific T-cell response is inversely correlated with plasma viral load, particularly when responses are directed against an epitope, 165 DRFYKSLRA173 , within the highly conserved Major Homology Region of gag-p26. We also showed that the presence of three proline residues, at positions 119, 159 and 178 of gag-p26, was significantly correlated with low viral load. Since this proline motif was also associated with stronger gag-specific CTL responses, we investigated the impact of these prolines on proteasomal processing of the protective 165 DRFYKSLRA173 epitope. Our data demonstrate that the 165 DRFYKSLRA173 epitope is most efficiently processed from precursors that contain two flanking proline residues, found naturally in low viral-load patients. Superior antigen processing and enhanced presentation may account for the link between infection with HIV-2 encoding the "PPP-gag" sequence and both strong gag-specific CTL responses as well as lower viral load.

Early virological and immunological events in asymptomatic Epstein-Barr virus infection in African children.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection often occurs in early childhood and is asymptomatic. However, if delayed until adolescence, primary infection may manifest as acute infectious mononucleosis (AIM), a febrile illness characterised by global CD8+ T-cell lymphocytosis, much of it reflecting a huge expansion of activated EBV-specific CD8+ T-cells. While the events of AIM have been intensely studied, little is known about how these relate to asymptomatic primary infection. Here Gambian children (14-18 months old, an age at which many acquire the virus) were followed for the ensuing six months, monitoring circulating EBV loads, antibody status against virus capsid antigen (VCA) and both total and virus-specific CD8+ T-cell numbers. Many children were IgG anti-VCA-positive and, though no longer IgM-positive, still retained high virus loads comparable to AIM patients and had detectable EBV-specific T-cells, some still expressing activation markers. Virus loads and the frequency/activation status of specific T-cells decreased over time, consistent with resolution of a relatively recent primary infection. Six children with similarly high EBV loads were IgM anti-VCA-positive, indicating very recent infection. In three of these donors with HLA types allowing MHC-tetramer analysis, highly activated EBV-specific T-cells were detectable in the blood with one individual epitope response reaching 15% of all CD8+ T-cells. That response was culled and the cells lost activation markers over time, just as seen in AIM. However, unlike AIM, these events occurred without marked expansion of total CD8+ numbers. Thus asymptomatic EBV infection in children elicits a virus-specific CD8+ T-cell response that can control the infection without over-expansion; conversely, in AIM it appears the CD8 over-expansion, rather than virus load per se, is the cause of disease symptoms.

Is early measles vaccination better than later measles vaccination?

WHO recommends delaying measles vaccination (MV) until maternal antibody has waned. However, early MV may improve child survival by reducing mortality from conditions other than measles infection. We tested whether early MV improves child survival compared with later MV. We found 43 studies comparing measles-vaccinated and measles-unvaccinated children; however, only 16 studies had specific information that MV had been provided at 4-13 months of age, many before 9 months of age. In the 10 best studies (4 randomized trials and 6 observational studies) control children did not receive MV during follow-up. In eight of these studies the vaccine efficacy against death (VED) was 60% or more. In four studies with information on MV provided both before and after 12 months of age, the all-cause mortality reduction was significantly larger for children vaccinated in infancy (VED=74%; 95% CI 51-86%) than for children vaccinated after 12 months of age (VED=29%; CI 8-46%). Prevention of measles explained little of the reduction in mortality. In five studies with information on measles infection, VED was 67% (51-78%) and when measles deaths were excluded, VED was only reduced to 65% (47-77%). One natural experiment compared MV at 4-8 months versus MV at 9-11 months of age and found significantly lower all-cause mortality with early vaccination, the difference being 39% (8-60%). Child mortality may be reduced if MV is given earlier than currently recommended by international organizations.

Measles vaccination in the presence or absence of maternal measles antibody: impact on child survival.

BACKGROUND: Measles vaccine (MV) has a greater effect on child survival when administered in early infancy, when maternal antibody may still be present. METHODS: To test whether MV has a greater effect on overall survival if given in the presence of maternal measles antibody, we reanalyzed data from 2 previously published randomized trials of a 2-dose schedule with MV given at 4-6 months and at 9 months of age. In both trials antibody levels had been measured before early measles vaccination. RESULTS: In trial I (1993-1995), the mortality rate was 0.0 per 1000 person-years among children vaccinated with MV in the presence of maternal antibody and 32.3 per 1000 person-years without maternal antibody (mortality rate ratio [MRR], 0.0; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0-.52). In trial II (2003-2007), the mortality rate was 4.2 per 1000 person-years among children vaccinated in presence of maternal measles antibody and 14.5 per 1000 person-years without measles antibody (MRR, 0.29; 95% CI, .09-.91). Possible confounding factors did not explain the difference. In a combined analysis, children who had measles antibody detected when they received their first dose of MV at 4-6 months of age had lower mortality than children with no maternal antibody, the MRR being 0.22 (95% CI, .07-.64) between 4-6 months and 5 years. CONCLUSIONS: Child mortality in low-income countries may be reduced by vaccinating against measles in the presence of maternal antibody, using a 2-dose schedule with the first dose at 4-6 months (earlier than currently recommended) and a booster dose at 9-12 months of age. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT00168558.

Efficacy and effectiveness of infant vaccination against chronic hepatitis B in the Gambia Hepatitis Intervention Study (1986-90) and in the nationwide immunisation program.

BACKGROUND: Gambian infants were not routinely vaccinated against hepatitis B virus (HBV) before 1986. During 1986-90 the Gambia Hepatitis Intervention Study (GHIS) allocated 125,000 infants, by area, to vaccination or not and thereafter all infants were offered the vaccine through the nationwide immunisation programme. We report HBV serology from samples of GHIS vaccinees and unvaccinated controls, and from children born later. METHODS: During 2007-08, 2670 young adults born during the GHIS (1986-90) were recruited from 80 randomly selected villages and four townships. Only 28% (753/2670) could be definitively linked to their infant HBV vaccination records (255 fully vaccinated, 23 partially vaccinated [1-2 doses], 475 not vaccinated). All were tested for current HBV infection (HBV surface antigen [HBsAg]) and, if HBsAg-negative, evidence of past infection (HBV core-protein antibody [anti-HBc]). HBsAg-positive samples (each with two age- and sex-matched HBsAg-negative samples) underwent liver function tests. In addition, 4613 children born since nationwide vaccination (in 1990-2007) were tested for HBsAg. Statistical analyses ignore clustering. RESULTS: Comparing fully vaccinated vs unvaccinated GHIS participants, current HBV infection was 0.8% (2/255) vs 12.4% (59/475), p < 0.0001, suggesting 94% (95% CI 77-99%) vaccine efficacy. Among unvaccinated individuals, the prevalence was higher in males (p = 0.015) and in rural areas (p = 0.009), but adjustment for this did not affect estimated vaccine efficacy. Comparing fully vaccinated vs unvaccinated participants, anti-HBc was 27.4% (70/255) vs 56.0% (267/475), p < 0.00001. Chronic active hepatitis was not common: the proportion of HBsAg-positive subjects with abnormal liver function tests (ALT > 2 ULN) was 4.1%, compared with 0.2% in those HBsAg-negative. The prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis C virus was low (0.5%, 13/2592). In children born after the end of GHIS, HBsAg prevalence has remained low; 1.4% (15/1103) in those born between 1990-97, and 0.3% (9/35150) in those born between 1998-2007. CONCLUSIONS: Infant HBV vaccination achieves substantial protection against chronic carriage in early adulthood, even though approximately a quarter of vaccinated young adults have been infected. This protection persists past the potential onset of sexual activity, reinforcing previous GHIS findings of protection during childhood and suggesting no need for a booster dose. Nationwide infant HBV vaccination is controlling chronic infection remarkably effectively.

Mortality rates in people dually infected with HIV-1/2 and those infected with either HIV-1 or HIV-2: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: As compared to HIV-1 infection, HIV-2 is less transmissible, disease progression is slower, and the mortality risk is lower. It has been suggested that HIV-2 infection inhibits the progression of HIV-1 in individuals dually infected by HIV-1 and HIV-2 (HIV-D). We examined whether the mortality rates in dually infected individuals differ from those in persons infected with either HIV-1 or HIV-2. DESIGN: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis. METHODS: Medline and Embase databases were searched for studies that reported the number of deaths and person-years of observation (PY) for at least two of the three HIV groups (i.e. HIV-1, HIV-2, and HIV-D). Meta-analyses were then performed with random-effects models, estimating combined mortality rate ratios (MRRs). RESULTS: Of the 631 identified titles, six articles were included in the meta-analysis of HIV-D-infected individuals versus HIV-mono-infected persons, and seven were included in the analysis of HIV-1-mono-infected versus HIV-2-mono-infected individuals. The overall MRR of those infected with HIV-D versus HIV-1 was 1.11 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.95-1.30]. The overall MRR of those infected with HIV-D versus HIV-2 was 1.81 (95% CI 1.43-2.30) and the MRR of those infected with HIV-1 versus HIV-2 was 1.86 (95% CI 1.44-2.39). CONCLUSION: HIV-2-mono-infected persons have a lower mortality rate than those mono-infected with HIV-1 and those with HIV-D. There is no evidence that HIV-2 delays progression to death in HIV-D-infected individuals.

Host iron redistribution as a risk factor for incident tuberculosis in HIV infection: an 11-year retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Identifying people at higher risk of developing tuberculosis with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection may improve clinical management of co-infections. Iron influences tuberculosis (TB) pathogenesis, but understanding the exact mechanisms of how and timing of when iron is involved remains challenging since biological samples are rarely available from the disease susceptibility period due to the difficulty in predicting in who and when, if ever, TB will develop. The objective of this research was to determine how host iron status measured at HIV diagnosis and genotypes related to host iron metabolism were associated with incident TB. METHODS: Archived clinical data, plasma and DNA were analyzed from 1139 adult participants in a large HIV-1, HIV-2 and dual seroprevalent cohort based at the Medical Research Council Laboratories in The Gambia. Incident pulmonary and/or extrapulmonary TB diagnoses a minimum of 28 days after HIV diagnosis were independently re-confirmed using available evidence (n=152). Multiple host iron status biomarkers, Haptoglobin and solute carrier family 11, member 1 (SLC11A1) genotypes were modeled to characterize how indicators of host iron metabolism were associated with TB susceptibility. RESULTS: Hemoglobin (incidence rate ratio, IRR=0.88, 95% CI=0.79-0.98), plasma transferrin (IRR=0.53, 0.33-0.84) and ferritin (IRR=1.26, 1.05-1.51) were significantly associated with TB after adjusting for TB susceptibility factors. While genotype associations were not statistically significant, SLC11A1 associations replicated similar directions as reported in HIV-seronegative meta-analyses. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence of host iron redistribution at HIV diagnosis was associated with incident TB, and genetic influences on iron homeostasis may be involved. Low hemoglobin was associated with subsequent diagnosis of TB, but when considered in combination with additional iron status biomarkers, the collective findings point to a mechanism whereby anemia and iron redistribution are likely due to viral and/or bacteria-driven processes and the host immune response to infection. As a result, iron supplementation may not be efficacious or safe under these circumstances. Clinical and nutritional management of HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis co-infected individuals, especially in regions where food insecurity and malnutrition co-exist, may be further improved when the iron-related TB risk factors identified here are better understood and managed to favor host rather than pathogen outcomes.

Clinical predictors cannot replace biological predictors in HIV-2 infection in a community setting in West Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To identify clinical predictors of mortality in HIV-2-infected individuals that may be used in place of CD4 count or plasma viral load (PVL) to guide treatment management in resource-limited settings. METHODS: A prospective community cohort study of HIV-infected and HIV-negative individuals in a rural area of Guinea-Bissau has been ongoing since 1989. In 2003 participants were invited for a clinical examination and blood tests. They were followed-up for vital status until 2010. Antiretroviral treatment (ART) became available in 2007. Cox regression was used to examine the association of clinical measures (World Health Organization (WHO) stage, body mass index (BMI), mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), and WHO performance scale) measured in 2003 with subsequent mortality. RESULTS: In 2003, 146 HIV-2-infected individuals (68% women; mean age 56 years) were examined. Over the next 7 years, 44 (30%) died. BMI<18.5kg/m(2) was associated with a crude mortality hazard ratio (HR) of 1.9 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.0-3.9, p=0.08); adjusted for age and sex, HR 1.8 (95% CI 0.9-3.8, p=0.1). MUAC <230mm in women and <240mm in men was also associated with an elevated mortality HR, though statistical evidence was weak (crude HR 2.2, 95% CI 0.9-5.3, p=0.1). WHO clinical stage and WHO performance scale were not associated with mortality (p=0.6 and p=0.2, respectively, for crude associations). CONCLUSIONS: Baseline BMI, MUAC, WHO stage, and WHO performance scale were not strong or statistically significant predictors of mortality among HIV-2-infected individuals. CD4 count and PVL are more reliable tools, when available, for the management of HIV-2-infected patients in the community setting.