Toll-like receptor 9 gene expression in the post-thrombotic syndrome, residual thrombosis and recurrent deep venous thrombosis: A case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: Animal models suggest that toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) promotes thrombus resolution after acute deep venous thrombosis (DVT). We hypothesized that TLR9 expression is lower in patients with post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS) and investigated the role of TLR9 in residual thrombosis (RT) and recurrence. METHODS: Patients with a history of DVT with PTS (cases, n=30) and without PTS after minimal 24 months follow-up (controls, n=30) were selected. Healthy individuals (HI, n=29) without DVT were included as reference. TLR9 mRNA expression in leukocytes was determined by qPCR and normalized to the housekeeping succinate dehydrogenase subunit A gene using the ΔCt method. Sub analyses were performed to explore the TLR9 expression in patients with and without RT and multiple DVT episodes. RESULTS: The median TLR9 expression was 0.45 (interquartile range 0.31 to 0.93), 0.39 (0.25 to 0.69) and 0.62 (0.32 to 0.75) in cases, controls and HI respectively (p=0.61). The median TLR9 expression was 0.39 (0.26 to 0.51) in patients with RT compared to 0.55 (0.30 to 0.86, p=0.13) in those without. The median TLR9 expression was significantly lower in patients who had one DVT compared to patients with recurrent DVT, 0.37 (0.23 to 0.63) versus 0.55 (0.43 to 0.96) respectively (p<0.01). CONCLUSION: No significant difference in TLR9 expression was found between cases, controls and HI. However TLR9 expression seems lower in individuals with DVT and RT, albeit not significant. Interestingly, TLR9 might play a role in recurrent DVT, as the TLR9 expression was significantly higher in patients with recurrent DVT.

Characterization of an autosomal dominant bleeding disorder caused by a thrombomodulin mutation.

We describe a family with an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by severe trauma- and surgery-related bleeding. The proband, who experienced life-threatening bleeding during a routine operation, had normal clotting times, but markedly reduced prothrombin consumption. Plasma levels of all coagulation factors and of the main coagulation inhibitors were normal. Thrombin generation at low triggers was severely impaired and mixing experiments suggested the presence of a coagulation inhibitor. Using whole exome sequencing, the underlying genetic defect was identified as the THBD c.1611C>A mutation (p.Cys537Stop), which predicts a truncated form of thrombomodulin that is shed from the vascular endothelium. The patient had decreased expression of endothelium-bound thrombomodulin, but extremely elevated levels of soluble thrombomodulin in plasma, impairing the propagation phase of coagulation via rapid activation of protein C and consequent inactivation of factors Va and VIIIa. The same thrombomodulin mutation has been recently described in an unrelated British family with strikingly similar features.

Factor Xa activation of factor V is of paramount importance in initiating the coagulation system: lessons from a tick salivary protein.

BACKGROUND: Generation of active procoagulant cofactor factor Va (FVa) and its subsequent association with the enzyme activated factor X (FXa) to form the prothrombinase complex is a pivotal initial event in blood coagulation and has been the subject of investigative effort, speculation, and controversy. The current paradigm assumes that FV activation is initiated by limited proteolysis by traces of (meizo) thrombin. METHODS AND RESULTS: Recombinant tick salivary protein TIX-5 was produced and anticoagulant properties were studied with the use of plasma, whole blood, and purified systems. Here, we report that TIX-5 specifically inhibits FXa-mediated FV activation involving the B domain of FV and show that FXa activation of FV is pivotal for plasma and blood clotting. Accordingly, tick feeding is impaired on TIX-5 immune rabbits, displaying the in vivo importance of TIX-5. CONCLUSIONS: Our data elucidate a unique molecular mechanism by which ticks inhibit the host's coagulation system. From our data, we propose a revised blood coagulation scheme in which direct FXa-mediated FV activation occurs in the initiation phase during which thrombin-mediated FV activation is restrained by fibrinogen and inhibitors.

Absence of platelet-dependent fibrin formation in a patient with Scott syndrome.

To gain insight into the contribution of platelet-dependent thrombin formation in haemostasis and thrombosis, we investigated under flow conditions the haemostatic functions of platelets from a patient with Scott syndrome. Scott platelets are characterised by a diminished platelet-dependent thrombin generation. Thrombin generation was determined by calibrated automated thrombography and flow-based experiments were performed to reveal collagen-mediated platelet activation and fibrin deposition. Our studies indicate that adherent Scott platelets do not differ from control platelets in the formation of stable platelet aggregates under static and flow conditions. While for adherent control platelets a shape change, e.g. balloon formation, and externalisation of phosphatidylserine (PS) is associated with an increase in intracellular calcium concentration, this is not the case for Scott platelets. The calcium-induced morphological changes in control platelets are accompanied with a diminished recruitment of free flowing platelets. Scott platelets, not showing a calcium-induced shape change, also lost the ability to recruit free flowing platelets. These findings rebut the hypothesis that the mild bleeding tendency of Scott syndrome patients is due to a preserved adhesive activity of patient's platelets. Perfusion of tissue factor (TF)-activated control blood over immobilised collagen results in the formation of fibrin fibers that radiate from platelet aggregates. Although platelet aggregates were also observed after perfusion with TF-activated Scott blood, fibrin deposition was not observed. In conclusion, our findings indicate that platelet adhesion and spreading on a collagen matrix in the absence of fibrin formation is sufficient to sustain haemostasis under non-traumatic conditions.

Factor Xa-driven thrombin generation in plasma: dependency on the aminophospholipid density of membranes and inhibition by phospholipid-binding proteins.

Phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization of activated platelets plays a pivotal role in haemostasis and thrombosis. In the present study we have explored the relationship between the PS density of membranes and the rate of thrombin generation in plasma. Factor (F)Xa-initiated thrombin generation was measured in platelet-free plasma (PFP) containing either phospholipid vesicles of varying PS-content or non-stimulated platelets (reconstituted PRP). The duration of the initiation phase of FXa-driven thrombin generation decreased dramatically with increasing PS density. Concomitantly, the maximal rate of thrombin generation during the propagation phase (maxR) increased non-linearly, with the steepest incline between 5 and 10 mol% PS. Titration of FVa into plasma containing 2 mol% PS increased maxR proportionally and diminished the lag phase. In contrast, platelet-dependent thrombin generation was not influenced by addition of FVa. With increasing platelet concentration, the duration of the initiation phase drastically decreased, and maxR increased proportionally. At a physiologically relevant platelet concentration, maxR corresponded with the maxR found with 2 microM of 10 mol% PS. Annexin A5 (AnxA5) and lactadherin appeared to be powerful inhibitors of in-situ thrombin generation under all conditions examined, with AnxA5 being three- to four-fold more potent than lactadherin. In conclusion, maximal thrombin generation in plasma requires membranes with a density of 10-20 mol% PS. Our data further indicate that thrombin formed in situ induces externalization of PS to approx 10 mol% in a substantial platelet subpopulation.

Reversible inhibition of the platelet procoagulant response through manipulation of the Gardos channel.

The platelet procoagulant response requires a sustained elevation of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration, [Ca2+]i, causing exposure of phosphatidylserine (PS) at the outer surface of the plasma membrane. An increased [Ca2+]i also activates Ca2+-dependent K+ channels. Here, we investigated the contribution of the efflux of K+ ions on the platelet procoagulant response in collagen-thrombin-activated platelets using selective K+ channel blockers. The Gardos channel blockers clotrimazol, charybdotoxin, and quinine caused a similar decrease in prothrombinase activity as well as in the number of PS-exposing platelets detected by fluorescence-conjugated annexin A5. Apamin and iberiotoxin, inhibitors of other K+ channels, were without effect. Only clotrimazol showed a significant inhibition of the collagen-plus-thrombin-induced intracellular calcium response. Clotrimazol and charybdotoxin did not inhibit aggregation and release under the conditions used. Inhibition by Gardos channel blockers was reversed by valinomycin, a selective K+ ionophore. The impaired procoagulant response of platelets from a patient with Scott syndrome was partially restored by pretreatment with valinomycin, suggesting a possible defect of the Gardos channel in this syndrome. Collectively, these results provide evidence for the involvement of efflux of K+ ions through Ca2+-activated K+ channels in the procoagulant response of platelets, opening potential strategies for therapeutic interventions.

Synergistic effect of thrombin on collagen-induced platelet procoagulant activity is mediated through protease-activated receptor-1.

OBJECTIVE: In the blood coagulation process, the rate of thrombin formation is critically dependent on phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) at the surface of activated platelets. Thrombin synergistically enhances the collagen-induced platelet procoagulant response. The objective of this study is to elucidate the mechanism of this synergistic action with a focus on the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) and the various platelet receptors for thrombin. METHODS AND RESULTS: We demonstrate that procoagulant activity is related to a sustained increased [Ca2+]i, which in turn depends on extracellular Ca2+ influx. Increased PtdSer exposure coincides with increased [Ca2+]i and was observed in a subpopulation (approximately 14%) of the platelets after stimulation with thrombin plus collagen. 2D2-Fab fragments against the thrombin binding site on GPIbalpha made clear that this receptor did not signal for platelet procoagulant activity. Inhibition of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR-1) and PAR-4 by selective intracellular inhibitors and selective desensitization of these receptors revealed that PAR-1, but not PAR-4, activation is a prerequisite for both sustained elevations in [Ca2+]i and procoagulant activity induced by collagen plus thrombin. CONCLUSIONS: The interaction of thrombin with PAR-1 mediates a synergistic effect on collagen-induced procoagulant activity by inducing a sustained elevation in [Ca2+]i in a subpopulation of platelets.

Factor XI-dependent reciprocal thrombin generation consolidates blood coagulation when tissue factor is not available.

OBJECTIVE: Feedback activation of factor XI by thrombin is a likely alternative for tissue factor-dependent propagation of thrombus formation. However, the hypothesis that thrombin can initiate and propagate its formation in a factor XI-dependent and platelet-dependent manner has not been tested in a plasma milieu. METHODS AND RESULTS: We investigated thrombin generation in recalcified platelet-rich plasma activated with varying amounts of thrombin or factor VIIa. Thrombin initiates and propagates dose-dependently thrombin generation only when platelets and plasma factor XI are present. Incubation of thrombin-activated platelets with a tissue factor neutralizing antibody had no effect on thrombin formation, indicating that platelet-associated tissue factor, if present at all, is not involved. In the absence of factor VIII, thrombin could not initiate its own formation, whereas factor VIIa-induced thrombin generation was reduced. Collagen strongly stimulated both thrombin-initiated and factor VIIa-initiated thrombin generation. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the notion that platelet-localized feedback activation of factor XI by thrombin plays an important role in maintaining normal hemostasis as well as in sustaining thrombus formation when the TF pathway is inhibited by tissue factor pathway inhibitor.

Coils and tubes releasing heparin. Studies on a new vascular graft prototype.

Coiled metallic guidewires find widespread use, for instance in interventional cardiology. It is known that release of heparin from the surface of guidewires is advantageous to prevent formation of thrombotic emboli. New coiled tubular structures, having larger inner and outer diameter as compared to guidewires, are presented. In theory these tubes can be used as interposition vascular grafts. Ten coiled tubes with an internal diameter of 690 microm were made. Five different adherent polymeric coatings with increasing hydrophilicity were used. Five tubes contained heparin in the coating and the other five were unheparinised controls. The five tubes containing heparin were studied with respect to heparin release in vitro (amount released, kinetics), and immobilised heparin that is exposed at the surface. All tubes were studied with a direct cell contact assay using 3T3 mouse fibroblast cells, a dynamic thrombin generation test, and endothelial cell growth onto the coils. It was found that the heparinised tubes lead to very little thrombin formation. It is argued that this is due to heparin that is immobilised and exposed at the inner surface of such tubes. Furthermore the coils showed to be cytocompatible and endothelial cells adhere and proliferate well onto the coils. This concept is believed to hold promise for further development of small vascular grafts.

Covalently-bound heparin makes collagen thromboresistant.

OBJECTIVE: Blood compatibility of artificial surfaces depends on their immunogenic and thrombogenic properties. Collagen's weak antigenicity makes it an attractive candidate for stent coatings or fabrication of vascular grafts. However, the thrombogenic nature of collagen limits its application. We examined whether heparinization can make collagen more thromboresistant. METHODS AND RESULTS: Collagen was heparinized by crosslinking collagen with extensively periodate oxidized heparin and/or by covalently bonding of mildly periodate oxidized heparin. Both ways of heparinization have no effect on platelet adhesion and could not abolish induction of platelet procoagulant activity. However, thrombin generation was completely prevented under static and flow conditions. The functionality of immobilized heparin was confirmed by specific uptake of antithrombin, 13.5+/-4.7 pmol/cm2 and 1.95+/-0.21 pmol/cm2 for mildly and heavily periodated heparin, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that immobilization of heparin on collagen, even as a crosslinker, is a very effective way to prevent surface thrombus formation. These data encourage the application of heparinized collagen as stent-graft material in animal and eventually human studies.

Thrombogenicity of polysaccharide-coated surfaces.

Heparinization of artificial surfaces has been proven to reduce the intrinsic thrombogenicity of such surfaces. The mechanism by which immobilized heparin reduces thrombogenicity is not completely understood. In the present study heparin-, alginic acid- and chondroitin-6-sulphate-coated surfaces were examined for protein adsorption, platelet adhesion and thrombin generation. The protein-binding capacity from solutions of purified proteins was significantly higher for heparin-coated surfaces when compared with alginic acid- and chondroitin sulphate-coated surfaces. Yet, when the surfaces were exposed to flowing plasma, only the heparinized surface adsorbed significant amounts of antithrombin. None of the surfaces adsorbed fibrinogen under these conditions, and as a result no platelets adhered from flowing whole blood. Our results indicate that protein adsorption and platelet adhesion from anticoagulated blood cannot be used to assess the thrombogenicity of (coated) artificial surfaces. Indeed, the thrombin generation potentials of the different surfaces varied remarkable: while non-coated surface readily produced thrombin, alginic acid- and chondroitin sulphate-coated surfaces showed a marked reduction and virtually no thrombin was generated in flowing whole blood passing by heparinized surfaces.

Fibrinogen adsorption, platelet adhesion and thrombin generation at heparinized surfaces exposed to flowing blood.

Thrombus formation at an artificial surface in contact with blood is a complex process that encompasses accretion of platelets from flowing blood and fibrin deposition. Platelet adhesion and fibrin formation are intimately intertwined reactions that are triggered by different sets of surface adsorbed plasma proteins. To dissect the contribution of protein adsorption and platelet adhesion to thrombin formation, a coherent study was performed with non-coated (NC) and heparin-coated (HC) surfaces. Thrombin production in whole blood, platelet adhesion and protein adsorption were studied using an amidolytic thrombin assay, a dynamic platelet adhesion assay and ellipsometry, respectively. Thrombin generation in flowing whole blood exposed to HC surfaces was greatly diminished when compared with NC surfaces. However, separate platelet adhesion and protein adsorption studies with anticoagulated whole blood revealed that platelets do not adhere because fibrinogen is not available in the protein layer that was deposited during the perfusion. These findings indicate that the in vitro thrombogenicity of a material cannot be predicted from platelet adhesion and protein adsorption data when these measurements are performed with anti-coagulated blood or platelet rich plasma. Preincubation of NC and HC surfaces with fibrinogen or 2000-fold diluted plasma resulted in similar amounts of surface-bound fibrinogen and mediated massive platelet adhesion from flowing whole blood. These results indicate that a) platelet adhesion correlates with the availability of surface-bound fibrinogen and b) NC and HC surfaces are indistinguishable with respect to protein (fibrinogen) adsorption and platelet adhesion. It is apparent that the heparinized surface used in our studies exerts its anti-thrombogenic properties by neutralizing locally formed thrombin and not by reducing fibrinogen-dependent platelet adhesion.