Fatalities in wild goats in Kurdistan associated with Peste des Petits Ruminants virus.

Between August 2010 and February 2011, over 750 deaths were recorded among wild goats (Capra aegagrus, the endangered progenitor of the domestic goat) in Kurdistan. Based on the clinical signs and post-mortem findings, the involvement of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) was suspected. This was confirmed by laboratory analysis, and the virus was found to be closely related to a Turkish strain isolated in 2000. During the outbreak in wild goats, no disease in domestic animals was reported. Domestic ruminants in the region are routinely vaccinated with an attenuated vaccine based on the 'Nigeria/75/1' strain of PPRV. This is the first report of active PPRV infection in Kurdistan and most likely the immunity afforded by vaccination prevented spillover infections. It is therefore recommended to continue with the campaign. Conversely, there is no justification for the use of force to keep the endangered wild goats away from domestic flocks.

Studies on digestive physiology and feed digestibilities in captive Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis).

We performed intake, digestibility and ingesta passage studies in 11 Indian rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis) from four zoological institutions, using total faecal collection for the quantification of faecal output. The regularly fed zoo ration of roughage and concentrates (ration RC) and a roughage-only ration (ration R) were used; the roughage source differed between the facilities and comprised grass hay, grass silage, straw and lucerne hay. Dry matter intake ranged between 0.8 and 1.3% of body weight on ration RC and 0.5-1.2% on ration R. Digestibility coefficients achieved were similar to those reported for horses on diets of comparable composition. Endogenous losses as determined by linear regression analysis were within the range reported for horses. Measurements of faecal volatile fatty acids, faecal lactate and faecal pH also showed similarity to similar measurements in horses. The mean retention times of fluids (Co-EDTA) and particles (Cr-mordanted fibre <2 mm) in the whole gastrointestinal tract averaged 42 and 61 h, respectively, and were the longest ever recorded in a monogastric ungulate with this marker system. The results suggest that the horse is a useful model animal for designing diets for Indian rhinoceroses. Why digestive parameters are similar between these species in spite of enormous differences in body weight and retention times remains to be answered.

Studies on feed digestibilities in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).

In order to test the suitability of the horse as a nutritional model for elephants, digestibility studies were performed with six captive Asian elephants on six different dietary regimes, using the double marker method with acid detergent lignin as an internal and chromium oxide as an external digestibility marker. Elephants resembled horses in the way dietary supplements and dietary crude fibre content influenced digestibility, in calcium absorption parameters and in faecal volatile fatty acid composition. However, the absolute digestibility coefficients achieved for all nutrients are distinctively lower in elephants. This is because of much faster ingesta passage rates reported for elephants. No answer is given to why elephants do not make use of their high digestive potential theoretically provided by their immense body weight. Differences in volatile fatty acid concentrations between these captive elephants and those reported from elephants from the wild are in accord with a reported high dependence of free-ranging elephants on browse forage.

On the reintroduction of the Mhorr gazelle in Tunisia and Morocco.

The Mhorr gazelle (Gazella dama mhorr) became extinct in the wild in the 1960s. The current world zoo population amounts to some 240 animals, going back to only 12 founders. In a cooperate international operation Mhorr gazelles of European zoo populations were successfully reintroduced to national parks and nature reserves in Morocco and Tunisia in the years 1990/1992. The genetical and ecological prerequisites as well as the breeding aspects are discussed.

[Malignant catarrhal fever in zoo ruminants]. / Bösartiges Katarrhalfieber bei Zoowiederkäuern.

An outbreak of malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) in Indian gauer (Bos gaurus gaurus) and Javan banteng (Bos javanicus javanicus) occurred in the year 1964 and killed almost all animals of the groups of these species kept at the Munich zoo at that time. In the consecutive years at highly irregular intervals cases of the head-and-eye-form of MCF occurred sporadically at the zoo in European and American bison (Bison bonasus, B. bison' bison, B. bison athabascae), elk (Alces alces), red deer (Cervus elaphus), Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) and again in gaur and banteng. The clinical and pathomorphological observations, including those of prophylactic and tentative treatment are reported. The subspecies of caprinae and alcelaphinae potentionally latently infected with viral agents of MCF kept at the zoo over the reported period are listed. Some details concerning housing, taking care of the animals etc. of the latently infected carriers of the family caprinae and the susceptible species of bovidae and cervidae are also given as far as they are of epidemiological interest. The results of the retrospective analysis and the results of testing paraffin-embedded tissue samples for the presence of ovine herpesvirus-2 (OHV-2)-specific DNA and alcelaphine herpesvirus-1 (AHV-1)-specific DNA from 1964 up to 1997 are discussed. The negative results for OHV-2-specific DNA suggest that MCF at Munich zoo until 1979 could have been "wildebeest-associated", also because until 1974 blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus taurinus) and until 1983 white-tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou) were kept. However, positive results for OHV-2-specific DNA in the tissues collected from 1985 onwards, strongly suggest the "sheep-associated" MCF.

[Recent developments relevant to animal welfare for the optimization of distance immobilization]. / Tierschutzrelevante Neuentwicklungen zur Optimierung der Distanzimmobilisation.

Developments in the field of distance immobilization with regard to animal welfare are reported. In order to prevent trauma, the impact energy of the darts has to be adjusted species specifically to the quality of the epidermis, the subcutaneous tissue and the thickness of the coat. A momentum of 10 joule in Equidae, or 20 joule in Bovidae and Cervidae should not be exceeded in any case. The impact energy can be reduced to 50% by using rubber caps with the darts; it is therefore recommended to use them regularly. The use of a laser range finder allows the most precise and careful application. Dosage recommendations for the "Hellabrunner Mixture" (mortality rate 0.35%) and for Long Acting Neuroleptic (LAN) are given. It is referred to the relevant legal regulations.

[Animal welfare and contraception of zoo and wild animals]. / Tierschutz und Kontrazeption bei Zoo- und Wildtieren.

Side effects and disadvantages of contraceptive methods currently used in zoo- and wild animals are presented and discussed. For the preservation of wild animal populations in captivity, i.e. in zoos, wild animal- and national parks, contraception alone is not suitable without a sensible supplementary postnatal selection.

Immunoreactive cytokines within primates.

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells of primates (man, orang utan, gorilla, baboon), rodents (mouse, rat), carnivores (cat, dog), artiodactyls (cattle, goat, pig) and perissodactyls (horse) were isolated and stimulated with mitogens (5 micrograms/ml LPS, 5 micrograms/ml PHA) at 37 degrees C. Cytokines immunoreactive to monoclonal antibodies (mAb) directed to human cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1 alpha, IL-2, IL-6, IFN-gamma) could be detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the case of primates only. The mAb used did not recognize cytokines of the other mammalian species investigated. The results demonstrate the close relationship within the primates from the immunophysiological point of view.

[Cause of diseases and death in New World camelids]. / Erkrankungs- und Todesursachen bei Neuweltkameliden.

Over a period of 25 years post mortem examination and in selected cases microbiological and/or parasitological investigations were carried out in 79 South American camelids (llama, alpaca, guanaco, vicuña). The principal findings (frequently identical with the cause of death) are retrospectively commented with regard to available anamnestic data and the literature. Besides infectious and noninfectious diseases occurring in all mammalian species findings of lesser importance, but peculiar to camelids, like foam cell granulomas beneath the pulmonary pleura, hepatic empty proliferations (lipomatous metaplasia), and gastroliths in the glandular saccules of stomach compartment I, are also discussed.

[Boredom in zoo animals--an relevant animal welfare problem?]. / Langeweile im Zoo: ein tierschutzrelevantes Problem?

Modern sciences, the philosophy of insight, and psychology are the basis for a discussion of the question, whether animals can experience boredom or even suffer from it. Various examples are used for illustration. The results show that neither a direct statement is possible nor can a logical conclusion by indirect analogy be made.

[The use of tiletamine/zolazepam/romifidine for distant immobilization of wild boars]. / Die Verwendung von Tiletamin/Zolazepam/Romifidine zur Distanzimmobilisation von Wildschweinen.

The immobilisation of 25 wild boars with a combination of tiletamine/zolazepam/romifidine is described. The applied dose was 3-6 mg/kg BW Tilest 500 and 100 micrograms/kg BW Sedavet. The mean recumbency time was 5-10 min. There were no critical moments during anesthesia, even with pregnant sows. Anesthesia was supervised with a pulse oximeter and a respiration frequency monitor. The oxygen saturation was between 92% and 96%, pulse and respiration rate remained normal.

Vitamin A (retinol and retinyl esters), alpha-tocopherol and lipid levels in plasma of captive wild mammals and birds.

Vitamin A (retinol and retinyl esters), vitamin E and lipids were determined in a wide variety of wild mammals and birds held in captivity. In mammals plasma levels of vitamin A were generally below 500 ng/ml and those of vitamin E were highly variable (0.1-2 micrograms/ml). In primates, vitamin E levels were 3 to 8 micrograms/ml. Whereas in Marsupialia, Chiroptera, primates, Rodentia, Proboscidea, Sirenia, Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla only retinol was found, retinyl esters (basically retinol palmitate/oleate) represented 10 to 50% of the total plasma vitamin A in some birds of the order Ciconiiformes and Falconiformes. Retinol levels in birds were higher compared to mammals (500-2,000 ng/ml). The same was true for lipids as well as for vitamin E levels (1-26 micrograms/ml) in the plasma of birds.

Carnivora: the primary structure of the beach marten (Martes foina, Mustelidae) hemoglobin.

The primary structures of alpha- and beta-chains from the hemoglobin of the Beach Marten (Martes foina, Carnivora) are presented. The globin chains were separated on CM-cellulose in 8M urea buffer. The amino-acid sequences were established by automatic liquid- and gas-phase Edman degradation of the intact chains and the tryptic peptides from oxidized chains. Comparison of the sequences with human hemoglobin shows 21 exchanges in the alpha- and 12 in the beta-chains. The differences concerning heme and interchain contact sites as well as the substitution alpha 77 (EF6)Pro----Ala are discussed. The latter is observed for the first time in a mammalian hemoglobin. The sequences are compared with those of other Carnivora. The beta-chains of Martes foina and Pteronura brasiliensis (Giant Otter) are found to be identical, but their alpha-chains differ in 7 positions. The surprising small numbers of exchanges between the hemoglobin from Beach marten and that from Lesser and Greater Panda are discussed.

[The immobilization of wild equines with STH 2130 and tiletamine/zolazepam]. / Zur Immobilisation von Wildequiden mit STH 2130 und Tiletamin/Zolazepam.

Successful immobilisation of Przewalski's horses and zebras was obtained by using a combination of STH 2130 (Boehringer) and Tiletamin/Zolazepam.

[Udder health control of dairy cows in the area of Ankara (Turkey)]. / Eutergesundheitskontrolle von Milchkühen im Gebiet von Ankara (Türkei).

The udder health of dairy cows is necessary in order to serve the consumer with milk and milk products of perfect quality and sound hygiene. Also in districts where the dairy industry is less developed a better udder health can be obtained when certain hygiene rules are carried out in connection with simple diagnostic and therapeutic measurements.

[The antagonism of ketamine/xylazine anesthesia ("Hellabrunn mixture") in wild zoo ruminants]. / Untersuchungen zur Antagonisierung der Ketamin/Xylazin-Anästhesie ("Hellabrunner Mischung") bei im Zoo gehaltenen Wildwiederkäuern.

The ability of the antagonists tolazoline, yohimbine and the combination of yohimbine with 4-aminopyridine to reverse the effects of the xylazine-component of the "Hellabrunn mixture" (125 mg/ml xylazine and 100 mg/ml ketamine) on nondomestic zoo ruminants is discussed. Arousal time, recovery time and changes in the parameter of circulatory and respiratory functions after antagonization are shown. Tolazoline is able to antagonize the xylazine effect completely within a short time. Using a dosage of 3-5 mg/kg there is a marked negative effect on the cardio-vascular system. Yohimbine in the used dosage of 0.25-0.3 mg/kg in non-domestic ruminants did not approve in its effects. Combining yohimbine (0.25-0.3 mg) with 4-aminopyridine (0.5 mg/kg) recovery time is about 30 minutes. The negative effect on the cardio-vascular system is less pronounced compared with tolazoline.

[The immobilization of giraffes]. / Zur Immobilisation von Giraffen.

The anatomical and physiological conditions of blood circulation in the giraffe are pointed out. 16 immobilizations in the giraffe of either sex are reported, of which 10 were immobilized according to the following scheme. 1. Premedication: 30 mg Xylazine 150 mg Hyaluronidase 2. 15 minutes later a halter with two long ropes is put on to hold up the animals' heads after they lay down. 3. 20 minutes after premedication the injection of 5.6-6.0 mg Etorphine (2.5-2.7 ml Immobilon) together with 150 I.U. Hyaluronidase follows. 4. We think that the most important fact is to hold the animals head and neck in an upright position during the whole time of immobilization. 5. Within 3 to 5 minutes after the intravenous application of 15 mg Diprenorphine (5.0 ml Revivon) the animals raise without any problems.