Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement Motivation.

We discuss the expectancy-value theory of motivation, focusing on an expectancy-value model developed and researched by Eccles, Wigfield, and their colleagues. Definitions of crucial constructs in the model, including ability beliefs, expectancies for success, and the components of subjective task values, are provided. These definitions are compared to those of related constructs, including self-efficacy, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and interest. Research is reviewed dealing with two issues: (1) change in children's and adolescents' ability beliefs, expectancies for success, and subjective values, and (2) relations of children's and adolescents' ability-expectancy beliefs and subjective task values to their performance and choice of activities. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.

Does Math-Fact Retrieval Explain Sex Differences in Mathematical Test Performance? A Commentary.

We focus on four issues in commenting on Royer et al.'s work testing their hypothesis that sex differences in test performance can be explained by differences in math-fact retrieval latency. The first issue is whether the studies conducted by Royer et al. directly test their hypothesis; we argue that they do not. The second issue involves questions about the strength of the gender differences in math-fact retrieval. The third is whether math-fact retrieval should be considered the major mechanism in explaining the differences in test performance. In considering this third issue we discuss other theories regarding the nature of math problem solving that are useful for understanding test performance differences between males and females. The fourth issue is what particular experiential differences boys and girls have in math classrooms could contribute to the sex differences in test performance. We also consider sex differences in math attitudes and motivation. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.

Critical care pathway development: the way forward.

In many NHS trusts throughout the UK, critical pathways are being used as a method of managing patient care, enabling trusts to ensure that patients receive appropriate, high quality, cost-effective care. At the same time they can meet some of the requirements of The Patient's Charter, such as involving patients in decision making and keeping them informed during periods of treatment. This article first describes critical pathways and then discusses briefly the reasons why pathways were developed at the Guy's and St Thomas' Trust, and the stages of development before their introduction.

Age and gender differences in children's self- and task perceptions during elementary school.

We examined the development of children's self- and task perceptions during the elementary school years. 865 first-, second,- and fourth-grade children (ages 7-10) completed questionnaires assessing their perceptions of competence in, and valuing of, activities in several activity domains (math, reading, sports, and instrumental music). Factor analyses showed that even the first graders had differentiated self-beliefs for the various activities. These analyses also indicated that children's competence beliefs and subjective task values formed distinct factors. Analyses assessing age and gender differences in children's beliefs showed that for all the activities except sports, younger children's (particularly the first graders) perceptions of competence and subjective task values were more positive than the beliefs of the older children. Boys had more positive competence beliefs and values than did girls for sport activities, and more positive competence beliefs for mathematics. Girls had more positive competence beliefs and values than did boys for reading and music activities.

Development during adolescence. The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents' experiences in schools and in families.

Although most individuals pass through adolescence without excessively high levels of "storm and stress," many do experience difficulty. Why? Is there something unique about this developmental period that puts adolescents at risk for difficulty? This article focuses on this question and advances the hypothesis that some of the negative psychological changes associated with adolescent development result from a mismatch between the needs of developing adolescents and the opportunities afforded them by their social environments. It provides examples of how this mismatch develops in the school and in the home and how it is linked to negative age-related changes in early adolescents' motivation and self-perceptions. Ways in which more developmentally appropriate social environments can be created are discussed.

Self-concepts, domain values, and self-esteem: relations and changes at early adolescence.

We assessed how children's self-concepts of ability for mathematics, English, social, and physical skills activities, ratings of the importance of these activities, and general self-esteem change across the transition to junior high school. Three types of change were assessed: change in mean levels, change in stability, and change in relationships. Twice each year during the sixth and seventh grades, 1,450 children completed questionnaires. Mean levels of children's self-esteem were lowest immediately after the transition, but recovered during seventh grade. Self-concept of ability and importance ratings for math and sports activities showed linear declines. Self-concept of ability for social activities showed a cubic trend, but importance ratings for social activities declined in a linear fashion. Children's self-concepts of ability for math and English became less stable across the junior high transition, whereas beliefs about other activities and general self-esteem were more stable in seventh grade.

Trichomonal vaginitis. A 24-hr regimen of nimorazole compared with a 7-day regimen of metronidazole.

A 24-hr regimen of nimorazole (1 g. orally at 12-hrly intervals for three doses) was compared with metronidazole (200 mg. three times daily for 7 days) in the treatment of trichomonal vaginitis. The two treatment schedules were given to alternate patients, pregnant women being excluded. One hundred cases were treated on each schedule; roughly one-fifth of the patients in each group defaulted. There were no observed failures with either schedule. The reasons for these exceptionally good results are discussed.