Prevalence of detectable HIV-DNA and -RNA in cerebrospinal fluid of youth with perinatal HIV and impaired cognition on antiretroviral therapy.

OBJECTIVE: Central nervous system (CNS) HIV infection can impact cognition and may be an obstacle to cure in adolescents and young adults with perinatal HIV (AYAPHIV). IMPAACT2015 enrolled AYAPHIV on suppressive antiretroviral therapy (ART) with cognitive impairment to detect and quantify HIV in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). DESIGN: IMPAACT2015 was a U.S.-based multi-site, exploratory, observational study. METHODS: Cognitive impairment was defined as NIH Toolbox Fluid Cognition Composite score (FCCS) > 1 standard deviation below age-adjusted normative group mean. Cell-free HIV-RNA and cell-associated HIV pol/gag -DNA and 10 biomarkers of inflammation/neuronal injury were measured in paired CSF and blood. ART exposure concentrations were quantified in hair. RESULTS: Among 24 participants, 20 had successful CSF collection and 18 also met viral suppression criteria. 9/18 (50%) were female sex-at-birth, 14/18 (78%) were Black. Median (range) age was 20 years (13-27), time on ART 18.3 years (8.0-25.5), and FCCS 68 (53-80). HIV-DNA was detected in PBMCs from all participants. In CSF, 2/18 (11%, 95% CI: 1.4-34.7%) participants had detectable cell-free HIV-RNA, while HIV gag or pol -DNA was detectable in 13/18 (72%, 95% CI: 47-90%). Detectable HIV-DNA in CSF was associated with male sex-at-birth (p = 0.051), lower CD4 count at enrollment (p = 0.016), and higher PBMC HIV pol -DNA copies (p = 0.058). Hair antiretroviral concentrations and biomarkers were not associated with CSF HIV-DNA detection. CONCLUSIONS: We found a high proportion of AYAPHIV with neurocognitive impairment had CSF cells harboring HIV-DNA during long-term virologic suppression. This evidence of persistent HIV-DNA in CSF suggests that the CNS should be considered in treatment and cure studies.

Piloting Safety and Stabilization: A Multi-component Trauma Intervention to Improve HIV Viral Suppression, Retention in Care, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in a Southern United States HIV Service Organization.

In this observational study, we assessed the extent to which a community-created pilot intervention, providing trauma-informed care for persons with HIV (PWH), affected HIV care retention and viral suppression among PWH attending an HIV Services Organization in the Southern US. PWH with trauma exposure and/or trauma symptoms (N = 166) were offered a screening and referral to treatment (SBIRT) session. Per self-selection, 30 opted-out, 29 received SBIRT-Only, 25 received SBIRT-only but reported receiving other behavioral health care elsewhere, and 82 participated in the Safety and Stabilization (S&S) Intervention. Estimates from multivariable logistic regression analyses indicated S&S Intervention participants had increased retention in HIV care (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 5.46, 95% CI 1.70-17.50) and viral suppression (aOR 17.74, 95% CI 1.83-172), compared to opt-out participants. Some evidence suggested that PTSD symptoms decreased for intervention participants. A randomized controlled trial is needed to confirm findings.

Process Mapping to inform implementation of Trauma-Informed Care for youth aged 14-24 with HIV in the Southern United States.

Background: Trauma-Informed Care (TIC) is an evidence-based approach for improving health outcomes by providing systematic, trauma- sensitive and -responsive care. Because TIC adoption varies by setting and population, Implementation Science (IS) is particularly well-suited to guide roll-out efforts. Process Mapping (PM) is an IS model for creating shared visual depictions of systems as they are to identify rate-limiting steps of intervention adoption, but guidance on how to apply PM to guide TIC adoption is lacking. Authors of this study aimed to develop a novel method for conducting TIC-focused PM. Methods: A real-life TIC implementation study is presented to show how TIC-focused PM was conducted in the case example of a pediatric HIV clinic in a Southern urban area with a high burden of psychological trauma among youth with HIV. A five-phase PM model was applied to evince clinic standards of care, including Preparation, planning and process identification; Data and information gathering; Map generation; Analysis; and Taking it forward. Practices and conditions from four TIC domains were assessed, including Trauma responsive services; Practices of inclusivity, safety, and wellness; Training and sustaining trauma responsiveness; and Cultural responsiveness. Results: The TIC-focused PM method indicated the case clinic provided limited and non-systematic patient trauma screening, assessment, and interventions; limited efforts to promote professional quality of life and elicit and integrate patient experiences and preferences for care; no ongoing efforts to train and prepare workforce for trauma- sensitive or -responsive care; and no clinic-specific efforts to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion for patients and personnel. Conclusion: Principles and constructs of resilience-focused TIC were synthesized with a five-phase PM model to generate a baseline depiction of TIC in a pediatric HIV clinic. Results will inform the implementation of TIC in the clinic. Future champions may follow the TIC-focused PM model to guide context-tailored TIC adoption.

Forty-Eight Week Outcomes of a Site-Randomized Trial of Combined Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Medication Management Algorithm for Treatment of Depression Among Youth With HIV in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Studies suggest that manualized, measurement-guided, depression treatment is more efficacious than usual care but impact can wane. Our study among youth with HIV (YWH), aged 12-24 years at US clinical research sites in the International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials Network, found a significant reduction in depressive symptoms among YWH who received a manualized, measurement-guided treatment. This paper reports outcomes up to 24 weeks after the intervention. METHODS: Eligibility included diagnosis of ongoing nonpsychotic depression. Using restricted randomization, sites were assigned to either combination cognitive behavioral therapy and medication management algorithm tailored for YWH or to enhanced standard of care, which provided psychotherapy and medication management. Site-level mean Quick Inventory for Depression Symptomatology Self-Report (QIDS-SR) scores and proportion of youth with treatment response (>50% decrease from baseline) and remission (QIDS-SR ≤ 5) were compared across arms using t tests. RESULTS: Thirteen sites enrolled 156 YWH, with baseline demographic factors, depression severity, and HIV disease status comparable across arms. At week 36, the site-level mean proportions of youth with a treatment response and remission were greater at combination cognitive behavioral therapy and medication management algorithm sites (52.0% vs. 18.8%, P = 0.02; 37.9% vs. 19.4%, P = 0.05), and the mean QIDS-SR was lower (7.45 vs. 9.75, P = 0.05). At week 48, the site-level mean proportion with a treatment response remained significantly greater (58.7% vs. 33.4%, P = 0.047). CONCLUSIONS: The impact of manualized, measurement-guided cognitive behavioral therapy and medication management algorithm tailored for YWH that was efficacious at week 24 continued to be evident at weeks 36 and 48.

Sustaining an HIV Prevention and Wellness Program for Sexual Gender Minorities during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Improving mental health, body image, and financial stability is paramount to achieving viral suppression and maintaining HIV-negative status for minoritized communities. The purpose of this paper is to describe the lessons learned from maintenance of an HIV prevention and wellness program during the COVID-19 pandemic. A three-session program was implemented in a hybrid format to account for county-wide restrictions and reopening processes. Lessons learned include the utility of a hybrid format, importance of CBPR partnership, innovation in virtual platform, value of social media presence and upkeep, and use of multiple methods to ascertain evaluative data. Sustaining an HIV prevention and wellness program requires strong research collaborations and ongoing engagement with priority populations and the flexibility to pivot as needed.

Preventing Medication Nonadherence of Youth (13-24 Years) With HIV Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of a dynamic, behavioral intervention to optimize medication adherence of adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with HIV newly initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and explore its efficacy on adherence and disease outcomes. METHODS: The two-arm randomized controlled trial piloted a brief, individualized intervention designed for direct integration into standard clinical care. In total, 32 AYAs with a confirmed HIV diagnosis, reportedly horizontally acquired, and recommended to initiate HAART completed a two-week placebo trial before HAART initiation and were subsequently randomized to standard of care or the individualized intervention. Adherence and disease outcomes were measured over the first six months of HAART. RESULTS: Results supported the primary study aim regarding feasibility (recruitment = 89%, attendance = 81%-100%, intervention exercise completion = 100%) and acceptability (average favorable response = 89%). Data also supported the positive effect of the intervention on select HAART adherence measures and disease outcomes. Adherence (by pharmacy refill) declined in both groups; however, adherence declined more slowly in the intervention group versus standard of care (p < .001). In addition, 100% of participants receiving the intervention obtained an undetectable viral load by 3 months and maintained an undetectable viral load at 6 months (vs. 68.8% standard of care). CONCLUSIONS: This is one of the first interventions to target adherence for AYAs with HIV newly initiating HAART and designed for delivery in existing clinical care settings. Future research will help confirm efficacy and the potential utility of the intervention in promoting HAART adherence from medication initiation and preventing the decrease in adherence often observed over time.

The Role of Pharmacy Refill Measures in Assessing Adherence and Predicting HIV Disease Markers in Youth with Perinatally-Acquired HIV (PHIV).

Antiretroviral (ARV) adherence is critical in monitoring disease response in youth with perinatally-acquired HIV (PHIV). We used pharmacy refill (PR) information for PHIV youth from the PHACS Memory Sub-study to calculate medication availability over 2, 4, and 6 months. PR, a proxy of adherence, was compared with self-reported 7-day adherence in predicting suppressed viral load (SVL < 400 copies/mL) and higher CD4% (≥ 25%). Among 159 PHIV youth, 79% were adherent by 7-day recall, and 62, 55, and 48% by PR over 2, 4, and 6 months, respectively. Agreement between 7-day recall and PR adherence was weak (Kappa = 0.09-0.25). In adjusted logistic regression models, adherence showed associations with SVL for 7-day recall (OR 2.78, 95% CI 1.08, 7.15) and all PR coverage periods (6-month: OR 3.24, 95% CI 1.22, 8.65). Similar associations were observed with higher CD4%. PR measures were predictive of study retention. Findings suggest a possibly independent role of PR adherence measures.

Paediatric advance care planning survey: a cross-sectional examination of congruence and discordance between adolescents with HIV/AIDS and their families.

OBJECTIVES: To identify patient-reported paediatric advance care planning (pACP) needs of adolescents living with HIV and to examine the congruence with their family's perception of their needs. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey among six paediatric hospital-based outpatient HIV specialty clinics. Participants included 48 adolescent/family dyads (n=96 participants) within a larger study facilitating pACP. The main outcome measure was the Lyon Advance Care Planning Survey - Adolescent and Surrogate Versions-Revised. RESULTS: Adolescents' mean age was 18 years (range ≥14-<21); 54% male; 92% African-American; 27% with prior AIDS diagnosis. If dying, 92% believed in completing an advance directive; 85% preferred to die at home;88% knowing how to say good bye; 71% being off machines that extend life and 77% dying a natural death. Best timing for end-of-life (EOL) decisions was while healthy (38%), when first diagnosed (17%), when first sick from a life-threatening illness (4%), when first hospitalised (8%), if dying (4%) and all of the above (19%). Prevalence-adjusted bias-adjusted Kappa (PABAK) measured congruence in pACP needs within adolescent/family dyads. There was substantial congruence in that being free from pain (PABAK=0.83), and understanding your treatment choices (PABAK=0.92) were very important or important. There was discordance about being off machines that extend life (PABAK=0.08) and when is the best time to bring up EOL decisions (PABAK=0.32). CONCLUSIONS: Areas of discordance were associated with life-sustaining choices and when to have the EOL conversation. Targeted, adolescent/family-centred, evidence-based pACP interventions are needed to improve family understanding of youth's EOL wishes. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT01289444; Results.

Roles of Medication Responsibility, Executive and Adaptive Functioning in Adherence for Children and Adolescents With Perinatally Acquired HIV.

BACKGROUND: Medication adherence is a critical but challenging developmental task for children and adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV (PHIV). Understanding how medication responsibility, executive functions (EFs) and adaptive functioning (AF) influence adherence may help prepare adolescents for transition to adulthood. METHODS: Participants included PHIV children and adolescents 7-16 years of age enrolled in the Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study Adolescent Master Protocol, who were prescribed antiretroviral medications. Measures included caregiver report and child self-report measures of adherence, medication responsibility and EF, caregiver report of child AF, examiner-administered tests of EF and processing speed and demographic and health characteristics. RESULTS: Two hundred fifty-six participants with PHIV (mean age: 12 years old) were 51% female, 80% black and 79% non-Hispanic. Per 7-day recall, 72% were adherent (no missed doses). Children/adolescents self-reported that 22% had sole and 55% had shared medication responsibility. Adjusted logistic models revealed significantly higher odds of adherence with sole caregiver responsibility for medication [odds ratio (OR): 4.10, confidence interval (CI): 1.43-11.8, P = 0.009], child nadir CD4% <15% (OR: 2.26, CI: 1.15-4.43, P = 0.018), better self-reported behavioral regulation (OR: 0.65, CI: 0.44-0.96, P = 0.029) and slower processing speed (OR: 0.54, CI: 0.38-0.77, P < 0.001), adjusting for demographic variables (age, race and caregiver education). CONCLUSIONS: Among children and adolescents with PHIV, continued caregiver medication management, especially during adolescence, is essential. Although global EF and AF were not significantly associated with adherence, behavioral regulation was. Given that EF and AF develop throughout adolescence, their relationships to adherence should be evaluated longitudinally, especially as youth transition to adulthood and caregiver responsibility diminishes.

Use of Placebo Pills Before Treatment Initiation in Youth with HIV: Are They Ready?

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) nonadherence is related to negative health outcomes and is well-documented in adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with behaviorally acquired HIV. Few studies describe methods to improve adherence in this population. This retrospective study describes placebo pill trial use (ie, pills with inert substance prescribed to practice taking HAART) in AYAs initiating HAART and its relation to disease outcomes. Sixty-two AYAs initiated HAART during the review period. Disease outcomes during the first year of standard clinical care were abstracted from medical records. In all, 72.6% of participants received ≥1 pill trial and 27.4% received ≥2 trials. Placebo trial use was not independently related to adherence post-HAART initiation. "Prescription" of a second trial was related to less optimal disease status over the first 6 months of treatment. Placebo trials have the potential to inform clinical care, aid in identifying AYAs at risk for nonadherence, and may provide a novel intervention strategy before/after HAART initiation.

A randomized clinical trial of adolescents with HIV/AIDS: pediatric advance care planning.

The objective of this study is to determine if pediatric advance care planning (pACP) increases adolescent/family congruence in end-of-life (EOL) treatment preferences longitudinally. Adolescents aged 14-21 years with HIV/AIDS and their families were randomized (N = 105 dyads) to three-60-minute sessions scheduled one week apart: either the pACP intervention (survey administered independently, facilitated conversation with adolescent and family present, completion of legal advance directive document with adolescent and family present) or an active control (developmental history, safety tips, nutrition and exercise education). This longitudinal, single-blinded, multi-site, randomized controlled trial was conducted in six pediatric hospital-based HIV-clinics, located in high HIV mortality cities. The Statement of Treatment Preferences measured adolescent/family congruence in EOL treatment preferences at immediately following the facilitated pACP conversation (Session 2), and at 3-month post-intervention. The mean age of adolescent participants was 18 years (range 14-21 years); 54% were male; and 93% were African-American. One-third had an AIDS diagnosis. Immediately post-intervention the Prevalence Adjusted Bias Adjusted Kappa showed substantial treatment preference agreement for pACP dyads compared to controls (High burden/low chance of survival, PABAK = 0.688 vs. 0.335; Functional impairment, PABAK = 0.687 vs. PABAK= 0.34; Mental impairment, PABKA = 0.717 vs. 0.341). Agreement to limit treatments was greater among intervention dyads than controls (High burden: 14.6% vs. 0%; Functional impairment = 22.9% vs. 4.4%; and Mental impairment: 12.5% vs. 4.4%). Overall treatment preference agreement among pACP dyads was high immediately post-intervention, but decreased over time. In contrast, treatment agreement among control dyads was low and remained low over time. As goals of care change over time with real experiences, additional pACP conversations are needed.

Body Image and Risk Behaviors in Youth with HIV.

Body image concerns are common among people living with HIV. Among adults with HIV, body image concerns have been shown to be related to risky sexual behaviors; little research has been conducted among youth living with HIV (YLWH). The current study examined the predictors, including body image, of sexual risk behaviors among YLWH. Adolescents from a single clinic (n = 143; age range, 16-24 years; 69% male; 95% African American) completed a computerized self-report survey to assess demographic, behavioral, and body image domains. Demographic and clinical data were abstracted from the medical record. Logistic regression analyses assessed associations between risk factors and risky sexual behaviors. Results indicated that YLWH who reported less favorable body image perceptions (p = 0.04) and more sexual partners (p = 0.05) were less likely to use condoms during their last sexual encounter. YLWH with six or more sexual partners were more likely to use drugs or alcohol during their last sexual encounter (p = 0.03). A belief that their HIV medications changed their body physically (p = 0.05), history of HIV-related complications (p = 0.03), an undetectable viral load at their most recent clinical laboratory draw (p = 0.01), and having a high school diploma or equivalent (p = 0.001) were independently associated with disclosure of participant's HIV status to a romantic/sexual partner. Findings suggest that body image perceptions may influence risky sexual behavior in YLWH. Further study is warranted to understand and intervene upon this relationship to improve individual and public health outcomes.

Acceptability of Family-Centered Advanced Care Planning for Adolescents With HIV.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Small pilot studies support the appropriateness of engaging adolescents with chronic or life-limiting illnesses in pediatric advance care planning (pACP). We do not yet know if pACP is acceptable, feasible, and worthwhile, even if emotionally intense, in a fully powered randomized controlled trial. METHODS: We conducted a prospective 2-arm randomized controlled trial at 6 US urban hospitals. Adolescent/family member dyads were randomized to receive the 1-session-a-week 3-session FAmily-CEntered Advance Care Planning (FACE) pACP intervention (1, ACP Survey; 2, Goals of Care Conversation/Treatment Preferences; 3, Completion of Advance Directive) or active comparator (1, Developmental History; 2, Safety Tips; 3, Nutrition/Exercise). The Satisfaction Questionnaire was administered to participants independently after each session by a blinded research assistant. RESULTS: We enrolled 53% of eligible participants and intervened with 97 adolescent/family dyads. Adolescents ranged in age from 14 to 21 years; 54% were male individuals; 93% African American; and 73% perinatally infected. Attendance was 99% for all 3 sessions in each arm. At session 3, FACE adolescents and family dyad members, respectively, found the session useful (98%, 98%) and helpful (98%, 100%), despite feelings of sadness (25%, 17%). FACE adolescents' improvement in the total subscale A score (useful, helpful, like a load off my mind, satisfied, something I needed to do, courageous, worthwhile) was better than control adolescents at session 3 (ß = 1.16, P = .02). There were no adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: FACE enabled worthwhile conversations, while simultaneously eliciting intense emotions. No participants withdrew, 99% of those enrolled completed each session, and there were no adverse events, evidence of pACP's feasibility, acceptability, and safety.

Joint-Specific Play Controller for Upper Extremity Therapy: Feasibility Study in Children With Wrist Impairment.

BACKGROUND: Challenges with any therapeutic program for children include the level of the child's engagement or adherence. Capitalizing on one of the primary learning avenues of children, play, the approach described in this article is to develop therapeutic toy and game controllers that require specific and repetitive joint movements to trigger toy/game activation. OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to evaluate a specially designed wrist flexion and extension play controller in a cohort of children with upper extremity motor impairments (UEMIs). The aim was to understand the relationship among controller play activity, measures of wrist and forearm range of motion (ROM) and spasticity, and ratings of fun and difficulty. DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional study of 21 children (12 male, 9 female; 4-12 years of age) with UEMIs. METHODS: All children participated in a structured in-clinic play session during which measurements of spasticity and ROM were collected. The children were fitted with the controller and played with 2 toys and 2 computer games for 5 minutes each. Wrist flexion and extension motion during play was recorded and analyzed. In addition, children rated the fun and difficulty of play. RESULTS: Flexion and extension goal movements were repeatedly achieved by children during the play session at an average frequency of 0.27 Hz. At this frequency, 15 minutes of play per day would result in approximately 1,700 targeted joint motions per week. Play activity was associated with ROM measures, specifically supination, but toy perception ratings of enjoyment and difficulty were not correlated with clinical measures. LIMITATIONS: The reported results may not be representative of children with more severe UEMIs. CONCLUSIONS: These outcomes indicate that the therapeutic controllers elicited repetitive goal movements and were adaptable, enjoyable, and challenging for children of varying ages and UEMIs.

Antiretroviral Drug Resistance Among Children and Youth in the United States With Perinatal HIV.

Among 234 US youths with perinatal human immunodeficiency virus, 75% had antiretroviral resistance, substantially higher than that of the reference laboratory overall (36%-44%). Resistance to newer antiretrovirals and to all antiretrovirals in a class was uncommon. The only factor independently associated with future resistance was a higher peak viral load.

Murine startle mutant Nmf11 affects the structural stability of the glycine receptor and increases deactivation.

KEY POINTS: Hyperekplexia or startle disease is a serious neurological condition affecting newborn children and usually involves dysfunctional glycinergic neurotransmission. Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are major mediators of inhibition in the spinal cord and brainstem. A missense mutation, replacing asparagine (N) with lysine (K), at position 46 in the GlyR α1 subunit induced hyperekplexia following a reduction in the potency of the transmitter glycine; this resulted from a rapid deactivation of the agonist current at mutant GlyRs. These effects of N46K were rescued by mutating a juxtaposed residue, N61 on binding Loop D, suggesting these two asparagines may interact. Asparagine 46 is considered to be important for the structural stability of the subunit interface and glycine binding site, and its mutation represents a new mechanism by which GlyR dysfunction induces startle disease. ABSTRACT: Dysfunctional glycinergic inhibitory transmission underlies the debilitating neurological condition, hyperekplexia, which is characterised by exaggerated startle reflexes, muscle hypertonia and apnoea. Here we investigated the N46K missense mutation in the GlyR α1 subunit gene found in the ethylnitrosourea (ENU) murine mutant, Nmf11, which causes reduced body size, evoked tremor, seizures, muscle stiffness, and morbidity by postnatal day 21. Introducing the N46K mutation into recombinant GlyR α1 homomeric receptors, expressed in HEK cells, reduced the potencies of glycine, ß-alanine and taurine by 9-, 6- and 3-fold respectively, and that of the competitive antagonist strychnine by 15-fold. Replacing N46 with hydrophobic, charged or polar residues revealed that the amide moiety of asparagine was crucial for GlyR activation. Co-mutating N61, located on a neighbouring ß loop to N46, rescued the wild-type phenotype depending on the amino acid charge. Single-channel recording identified that burst length for the N46K mutant was reduced and fast agonist application revealed faster glycine deactivation times for the N46K mutant compared with the WT receptor. Overall, these data are consistent with N46 ensuring correct alignment of the α1 subunit interface by interaction with juxtaposed residues to preserve the structural integrity of the glycine binding site. This represents a new mechanism by which GlyR dysfunction induces startle disease.

Characterizing Body Image in Youth with HIV.

Emerging research in adults with HIV suggests negative body image may be found at a higher rate in this group. To date, few studies have examined body image in adolescents living with HIV. This exploratory study aimed to characterize body image perceptions among youth living with HIV. Adolescents (n = 143; age range 16-24 years; 69 % male) completed an Audio Computer Assisted Self-Interview Questionnaire that assessed body image, psychosocial, medical and sociodemographic information. Medical history and physical functioning information were abstracted from medical records. Results showed normative global body image on the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales. Some subscale elevations were observed; including decreased interest in self-care and appearance, as well as concerns with individual body areas. Overall, youth reported preference for own body shape on the Figure Rating Scale; however, 41 % of youth classified as "overweight" per CDC body mass index reported contentment with current body size. Further, 47 % of youth classified as "normal" weight desired to have larger body size. Youth identified as men who have sex with men most often reported desiring larger body size. Implications for clinical care are discussed.

Prevalence and Persistence of Varicella Antibodies in Previously Immunized Children and Youth With Perinatal HIV-1 Infection.

BACKGROUND: Two doses of live-attenuated varicella-zoster vaccine are recommended for human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1)-infected children with CD4% ≥ 15%. We determined the prevalence and persistence of antibody in immunized children with perinatal HIV (PHIV) and their association with number of vaccinations, combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), and HIV status. METHODS: The Adolescent Master Protocol is an observational study of children with PHIV and perinatally HIV-exposed but uninfected (PHEU) children conducted at 15 US sites. In a cross-sectional analysis, we tested participants' most recent stored sera for varicella antibody using whole-cell and glycoprotein enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Seropositivity predictors were identified using multivariable logistic regression models and C statistics. RESULTS: Samples were available for 432 children with PHIV and 221 PHEU children; 82% of children with PHIV and 97% of PHEU children were seropositive (P < .001). Seropositivity after 1 vaccine dose among children with PHIV and PHEU children was 100% at <3 years (both), 73% and 100% at 3-<7 years (P < .05), and 77% and 97% at ≥ 7 years (P < .01), respectively. Seropositivity among recipients of 2 vaccine doses was >94% at all intervals. Independent predictors of seropositivity among children with PHIV were receipt of 2 vaccine doses, receipt of 1 dose while on ≥ 3 months of cART, compared with none (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 14.0 and 2.8, respectively; P < .001 for overall dose effect), and in those vaccinated ≥ 3 years previously, duration of cART (aOR: 1.29 per year increase, P = .02). CONCLUSIONS: Humoral immune responses to varicella vaccine are best achieved when children with PHIV receive their first dose ≥ 3 months after cART initiation and maintained by completion of the 2-dose series and long-term cART use.

Executive Functioning in Children and Adolescents With Perinatal HIV Infection.

BACKGROUND: Perinatal HIV (PHIV) infection may place youth at risk for impairments in executive functioning (EF). We examined associations of EF with HIV infection, disease severity and other factors among youth with PHIV and perinatally HIV-exposed, uninfected youth (PHEU). METHODS: Within the US-based Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study, 354 PHIV and 200 PHEU youth completed a standardized EF measure (Children's Color Trails Test, CCTT) and youth and/or caregivers completed a questionnaire measuring everyday EF (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, BRIEF). Covariates included HIV status, current and historical disease severity, demographic and caregiver variables and other cognitive measures. Analyses used linear and logistic regression and proportional odds models. RESULTS: No significant HIV status group differences were found on CCTT scores. Caregiver BRIEF ratings indicated significantly fewer problems for PHIV than PHEU youth. However, PHIV youth with past encephalopathy self-endorsed significantly greater metacognitive (ie, cognitive regulation) problems on the BRIEF and performed more slowly on the CCTT than PHEU youth. CCTT and caregiver BRIEF scores had significant associations with indicators of past and present disease severity. Both PHIV and PHEU had significantly worse scores than population means on CCTT and BRIEF; scores had significant associations with demographic covariates. CONCLUSIONS: Youth with PHIV show EF problems likely associated with risk factors other than HIV. However, cognitive slowing and self-reported metacognitive problems were evident in PHIV youth with a history of encephalopathy. Assessment and treatment of EF impairment may be important to identifying PHIV youth at particular risk for poor health and behavioral outcomes.

Perinatally acquired HIV infection: long-term neuropsychological consequences and challenges ahead.

Over the past three decades, perinatal HIV infection in the United States has evolved from a fatal disease to a manageable chronic illness. As the majority of youth with perinatal HIV infection age into adolescence and adulthood, management of this stigmatizing, transmittable disease in the backdrop of a cadre of environmental stressors presents challenges beyond those of other chronic illnesses. The neurologic and neuropsychological consequences of this neurotropic virus have important implications for the successful navigation of responsibilities related to increasingly independent living of this aging population. This article will review the neurologic and neuropsychological consequences of perinatal HIV infection and concomitant factors in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy and will provide an overview of the neuropathology, pathogenesis, neuroimaging findings, and treatment of perinatal HIV infection, as well as recommendations for service provision and future research.