Estimating nutrient thresholds for eutrophication management: Novel insights from understudied lake types.

Nutrient targets based on pressure-response models are essential for defining ambitions and managing eutrophication. However, the scale of biogeographical variation in these pressure-response relationships is poorly understood, which may hinder eutrophication management in regions where lake ecology is less intensively studied. In this study, we derive ecology-based nutrient targets for five major ecoregions of Europe: Northern, Central-Baltic, Alpine, Mediterranean and Eastern Continental. As a first step, we developed regressions between nutrient concentrations and ecological quality ratios (EQR) based on phytoplankton and macrophyte communities. Significant relationships were established for 13 major lake types; in most cases, these relationships were stronger for phosphorus than for nitrogen, and stronger for phytoplankton than for macrophytes. Using these regressions, we estimated the total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations at which lakes of different types are likely to achieve good ecological status. However, in the very shallow lakes of the Eastern Continental region, relations between nutrient and biological communities were weak or non-significant. This can be attributed to high nutrient concentrations (in the asymptotic zone of phosphorus-phytoplankton models) suggesting other factors (light, grazing) limit primary production. However, we also show that fish stocking is a major pressure on Eastern Continental lakes, negatively affecting ecological status: lakes with low fish stocking show low chlorophyll-a concentrations and good ecological status despite high nutrient levels, while the lakes with high fish stocking show high chlorophyll-a and low ecological status. This study highlights the need to better understand lakes in biogeographic regions that have been, for historical reasons, less studied. This, in turn, helps reveal factors that challenge the dominant paradigms of lake assessment and management.

Establishing ecologically-relevant nutrient thresholds: A tool-kit with guidance on its use.

One key component of any eutrophication management strategy is establishment of realistic thresholds above which negative impacts become significant and provision of ecosystem services is threatened. This paper introduces a toolkit of statistical approaches with which such thresholds can be set, explaining their rationale and situations under which each is effective. All methods assume a causal relationship between nutrients and biota, but we also recognise that nutrients rarely act in isolation. Many of the simpler methods have limited applicability when other stressors are present. Where relationships between nutrients and biota are strong, regression is recommended. Regression relationships can be extended to include additional stressors or variables responsible for variation between water bodies. However, when the relationship between nutrients and biota is weaker, categorical approaches are recommended. Of these, binomial regression and an approach based on classification mismatch are most effective although both will underestimate threshold concentrations if a second stressor is present. Whilst approaches such as changepoint analysis are not particularly useful for meeting the specific needs of EU legislation, other multivariate approaches (e.g. decision trees) may have a role to play. When other stressors are present quantile regression allows thresholds to be established which set limits above which nutrients are likely to influence the biota, irrespective of other pressures. The statistical methods in the toolkit may be useful as part of a management strategy, but more sophisticated approaches, often generating thresholds appropriate to individual water bodies rather than to broadly defined "types", are likely to be necessary too. The importance of understanding underlying ecological processes as well as correct selection and application of methods is emphasised, along with the need to consider local regulatory and decision-making systems, and the ease with which outcomes can be communicated to non-technical audiences.

Deriving nutrient criteria to support 'good' ecological status in European lakes: An empirically based approach to linking ecology and management.

European water policy has identified eutrophication as a priority issue for water management. Substantial progress has been made in combating eutrophication but open issues remain, including setting reliable and meaningful nutrient criteria supporting 'good' ecological status of the Water Framework Directive. The paper introduces a novel methodological approach - a set of four different methods - that can be applied to different ecosystems and stressors to derive empirically-based management targets. The methods include Ranged Major Axis (RMA) regression, multivariate Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, logistic regression, and minimising the mismatch of classifications. We apply these approaches to establish nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) criteria for the major productive shallow lake types of Europe: high alkalinity shallow (LCB1; mean depth 3-15 m) and very shallow (LCB2; mean depth < 3 m) lakes. Univariate relationships between nutrients and macrophyte assessments explained 29-46% of the variation. Multivariate models with both total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) as predictors had higher R2 values (0.50 for LCB1 and 0.49 for LCB2) relative to the use of TN or TP singly. We estimated nutrient concentrations at the boundary where lake vegetation changes from 'good' to 'moderate' ecological status. LCB1 lakes achieved 'good' macrophyte status at concentrations below 48-53 µg/l TP and 1.1-1.2 mg/l TN, compared to LCB2 lakes below 58-78 µg/l TP and 1.0-1.4 mg/l TN. Where strong regression relationships exist, regression approaches offer a reliable basis for deriving nutrient criteria and their uncertainty, while categorical approaches offer advantages for risk assessment and communication, or where analysis is constrained by discontinuous measures of status or short stressor gradients. We link ecological status of macrophyte communities to nutrient criteria in a user-friendly and transparent way. Such analyses underpin the practical actions and policy needed to achieve 'good' ecological status in the lakes of Europe.

Rewilding wetlands: beaver as agents of within-habitat heterogeneity and the responses of contrasting biota.

Ecosystem engineers can increase biodiversity by creating novel habitat supporting species that would otherwise be absent. Their more routine activities further influence the biota occupying engineered habitats. Beavers are well-known for transforming ecosystems through dam building and are therefore increasingly being used for habitat restoration, adaptation to climate extremes and in long-term rewilding. Abandoned beaver ponds (BP) develop into meadows or forested wetlands that differ fundamentally from other terrestrial habitats and thus increase landscape diversity. Active BP, by contrast, are superficially similar to other non-engineered shallow wetlands, but ongoing use and maintenance might affect how BP contribute to aquatic biodiversity. We explored the 'within-habitat' effect of an ecosystem engineer by comparing active BP in southern Sweden with coexisting other wetlands (OW), using sedentary (plants) and mobile (water beetles) organisms as indicators. BP differed predictably from OW in environmental characteristics and were more heterogeneous. BP supported more plant species at plot (+15%) and site (+33%) scales, and plant beta diversity, based on turnover between plots, was 17% higher than in OW, contributing to a significantly larger species pool in BP (+17%). Beetles were not differentiated between BP and OW based on diversity measures but were 26% more abundant in BP. Independent of habitat creation beaver are thus significant agents of within-habitat heterogeneity that differentiates BP from other standing water habitat; as an integral component of the rewilding of wetlands re-establishing beaver should benefit aquatic biodiversity across multiple scales.This article is part of the theme issue 'Trophic rewilding: consequences for ecosystems under global change'.

Using ecosystem engineers as tools in habitat restoration and rewilding: beaver and wetlands.

Potential for habitat restoration is increasingly used as an argument for reintroducing ecosystem engineers. Beaver have well known effects on hydromorphology through dam construction, but their scope to restore wetland biodiversity in areas degraded by agriculture is largely inferred. Our study presents the first formal monitoring of a planned beaver-assisted restoration, focussing on changes in vegetation over 12years within an agriculturally-degraded fen following beaver release, based on repeated sampling of fixed plots. Effects are compared to ungrazed exclosures which allowed the wider influence of waterlogging to be separated from disturbance through tree felling and herbivory. After 12years of beaver presence mean plant species richness had increased on average by 46% per plot, whilst the cumulative number of species recorded increased on average by 148%. Heterogeneity, measured by dissimilarity of plot composition, increased on average by 71%. Plants associated with high moisture and light conditions increased significantly in coverage, whereas species indicative of high nitrogen decreased. Areas exposed to both grazing and waterlogging generally showed the most pronounced change in composition, with effects of grazing seemingly additive, but secondary, to those of waterlogging. Our study illustrates that a well-known ecosystem engineer, the beaver, can with time transform agricultural land into a comparatively species-rich and heterogeneous wetland environment, thus meeting common restoration objectives. This offers a passive but innovative solution to the problems of wetland habitat loss that complements the value of beavers for water or sediment storage and flow attenuation. The role of larger herbivores has been significantly overlooked in our understanding of freshwater ecosystem function; the use of such species may yet emerge as the missing ingredient in successful restoration.

Redundancy in the ecological assessment of lakes: Are phytoplankton, macrophytes and phytobenthos all necessary?

Although the Water Framework Directive specifies that macrophytes and phytobenthos should be used for the ecological assessment of lakes and rivers, practice varies widely throughout the EU. Most countries have separate methods for macrophytes and phytobenthos in rivers; however, the situation is very different for lakes. Here, 16 countries do not have dedicated phytobenthos methods, some include filamentous algae within macrophyte survey methods whilst others use diatoms as proxies for phytobenthos. The most widely-cited justification for not having a dedicated phytobenthos method is redundancy, i.e. that macrophyte and phytoplankton assessments alone are sufficient to detect nutrient impacts. Evidence from those European Union Member States that have dedicated phytobenthos methods supports this for high level overviews of lake condition and classification; however, there are a number of situations where phytobenthos may contribute valuable information for the management of lakes.

Using remote sensing to aid the assessment of human health risks from blooms of potentially toxic cyanobacteria.

Mass populations of toxic cyanobacteria in recreational waters can present a serious risk to human health. Intelligence on the abundance and distribution of cyanobacteria is therefore needed to aid risk assessment and management activities. In this paper, we use data from the Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager-2 (CASI-2) to monitor seasonal change in the concentration of chlorophyll a (Chl a) and the cyanobacterial biomarker pigment C-phycocyanin (C-PC) in a series of shallow lakes in the U.K. The World Health Organization guidance levels for cyanobacteria in recreational waters were subsequently used to build a decision tree classification model for cyanobacterial risk assessment which was driven using Chl a and C-PC products derived from the CASI-2 data. The results demonstrate that remote sensing can be used to acquire intelligence on the distribution and abundance of cyanobacteria in inland waterbodies. It is argued the use of remote sensing reconnaissance, in conjunction with in situ based monitoring approaches, would greatly aid the assessment of cyanobacterial risks in inland waters and improve our ability to protect human health.

Attribute-based classification of European hydrophytes and its relationship to habitat utilization.

1Here we classify selected European hydrophytes into 'attribute groups' based on the possession of homogenous sets of characteristics, and explore the correspondence between these attribute groups, or individual attributes, and habitat use.2Non-hierarchical clustering was used to assign 120 species to twenty groups based on a matrix of categorical scores for literature- and field-derived information covering seventeen intrinsic morphological and life-history traits. Subdivision of some of these traits produced a total of 58 attributes (i.e. modalities). The robustness of this classification was confirmed by a high rate of reclassification (92%) under multiple discriminant analysis (MDA). The phylogenetic contribution was explored using ordination methods with taxonomy at family level acting as a covariable.3Our approach differed from earlier classifications based on growth or life form because we regarded growth form plasticity as a property of the species and its range of growing conditions, rather than of each individual population, and we considered additional (e.g. regenerative) traits. However, some conventional life form groups were preserved (i.e. utricularids, isoetids, hydrocharids and lemnids).4Some parallels existed with established theory on terrestrial plant growth strategies, but we used strictly intrinsic attributes relevant specifically to hydrophytes and our groups could not be decomposed into three or four primary strategies. Only finer levels of partitioning appear to be of fundamental and applied ecological relevance in hydrophytes.5A principal components analysis ordination based on 26 attributes related to physical habitat utilization separated species and their attribute groups along axes relating to: (a) flow, substratum grade and organic matter content, scour frequency, and sedimentation; and (b) depth, water level stability and biotic disturbance. A MDA applied to species ordination scores indicated only a modest overall correspondence between attribute groups and habitat use (54% correct reclassification). Poor reclassification was the result of intergroup overlap (indicating alternative sets of attributes for a given habitat) or high intragroup variance in habitat utilization (indicating commonality of attributes between different habitats). These results are interpreted in terms of trade-offs between resistance and resilience traits, 'functional plasticity' in traits, phylogenetic dependence in some groups and methodological constraints. The predictive potential of hydrophyte groups and their limitations are discussed.6Redundancy analysis revealed a highly significant correlation between traits and habitat use (P < 0.01). Our attribute matrix explained 72% of variation in physical habitat use with eight attributes (i.e. turions, anchored emergent leaves, high or low body flexibility, high root:shoot biomass ratio, free-floating surface or free-floating submerged growth form, and annual life history) explaining half of this variation.7Most attributes were mapped in accordance with habitat template predictions, although tests were confounded by the underlying correlation between spatial and temporal heterogeneity. The main features were: (a) a trade-off between resistance-type traits (related to stream lining, flexibility and anchorage) in more spatially heterogenous riverine and littoral zone habitats, and resilience type traits (i.e. turions, very small body size and free-floating growth forms) in spatially simple, rarely disturbed habitats, such as backwaters and canals; and (b) a shift from high investment competitive traits with a low reproductive output in deep stable habitats to classically ruderal and desiccation resistance traits in shallow fluctuating habitats.