Carbohydrate Nutrition and Skill Performance in Soccer.

In soccer, players must perform a variety of sport-specific skills usually during or immediately after running, often at sprint speed. The quality of the skill performed is likely influenced by the volume of work done in attacking and defending over the duration of the match. Even the most highly skilful players succumb to the impact of fatigue both physical and mental, which may result in underperforming skills at key moments in a match. Fitness is the platform on which skill is performed during team sport. With the onset of fatigue, tired players find it ever more difficult to successfully perform basic skills. Therefore, it is not surprising that teams spend a large proportion of their training time on fitness. While acknowledging the central role of fitness in team sport, the importance of team tactics, underpinned by spatial awareness, must not be neglected. It is well established that a high-carbohydrate diet before a match and, as a supplement during match play, helps delay the onset of fatigue. There is some evidence that players ingesting carbohydrate can maintain sport-relevant skills for the duration of exercise more successfully compared with when ingesting placebo or water. However, most of the assessments of sport-specific skills have been performed in a controlled, non-contested environment. Although these methods may be judged as not ecologically valid, they do rule out the confounding influences of competition on skill performance. The aim of this brief review is to explore whether carbohydrate ingestion, while delaying fatigue during match play, may also help retain sport soccer-specific skill performance.

Effects of Oral Creatine Supplementation on Power Output during Repeated Treadmill Sprinting.

The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of creatine (Cr) supplementation on power output during repeated sprints on a non-motorized treadmill. Sixteen recreationally active males volunteered for this study (age 25.5 ± 4.8 y, height 179 ± 5 cm, body mass 74.8 ± 6.8 kg). All participants received placebo supplementation (75 mg of glucose·kg-1·day-1) for 5 days and then performed a baseline repeated sprints test (6 × 10 s sprints on a non-motorised treadmill). Thereafter, they were randomly assigned into a Cr (75 mg of Cr monohydrate·kg-1·day-1) or placebo supplementation, as above, and the repeated sprints test was repeated. After Cr supplementation, body mass was increased by 0.99 ± 0.83 kg (p = 0.007), peak power output and peak running speed remained unchanged throughout the test in both groups, while the mean power output and mean running speed during the last 5 s of the sprints increased by 4.5% (p = 0.005) and 4.2% to 7.0%, respectively, during the last three sprints (p = 0.005 to 0.001). The reduction in speed within each sprint was also blunted by 16.2% (p = 0.003) following Cr supplementation. Plasma ammonia decreased by 20.1% (p = 0.037) after Cr supplementation, despite the increase in performance. VO2 and blood lactate during the repeated sprints test remained unchanged after supplementation, suggesting no alteration of aerobic or glycolytic contribution to adenosine triphosphate production. In conclusion, Cr supplementation improved the mean power and speed in the second half of a repeated sprint running protocol, despite the increased body mass. This improvement was due to the higher power output and running speed in the last 5 s of each 10 s sprint.

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Effects of Carbohydrate Ingestion During Exercise.

The purpose of this current opinion paper is to describe the journey of ingested carbohydrate from 'mouth to mitochondria' culminating in energy production in skeletal muscles during exercise. This journey is conveniently described as primary, secondary, and tertiary events. The primary stage is detection of ingested carbohydrate by receptors in the oral cavity and on the tongue that activate reward and other centers in the brain leading to insulin secretion. After digestion, the secondary stage is the transport of monosaccharides from the small intestine into the systemic circulation. The passage of these monosaccharides is facilitated by the presence of various transport proteins. The intestinal mucosa has carbohydrate sensors that stimulate the release of two 'incretin' hormones (GIP and GLP-1) whose actions range from the secretion of insulin to appetite regulation. Most of the ingested carbohydrate is taken up by the liver resulting in a transient inhibition of hepatic glucose release in a dose-dependent manner. Nonetheless, the subsequent increased hepatic glucose (and lactate) output can increase exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates by 40-50%. The recognition and successful distribution of carbohydrate to the brain and skeletal muscles to maintain carbohydrate oxidation as well as prevent hypoglycaemia underpins the mechanisms to improve exercise performance.

Misuse of "Power" and Other Mechanical Terms in Sport and Exercise Science Research.

Despite the Système International d'Unitès (SI) that was published in 1960, there continues to be widespread misuse of the terms and nomenclature of mechanics in descriptions of exercise performance. Misuse applies principally to failure to distinguish between mass and weight, velocity and speed, and especially the terms "work" and "power." These terms are incorrectly applied across the spectrum from high-intensity short-duration to long-duration endurance exercise. This review identifies these misapplications and proposes solutions. Solutions include adoption of the term "intensity" in descriptions and categorizations of challenge imposed on an individual as they perform exercise, followed by correct use of SI terms and units appropriate to the specific kind of exercise performed. Such adoption must occur by authors and reviewers of sport and exercise research reports to satisfy the principles and practices of science and for the field to advance.

Carbohydrate Nutrition and Team Sport Performance.

The common pattern of play in 'team sports' is 'stop and go', i.e. where players perform repeated bouts of brief high-intensity exercise punctuated by lower intensity activity. Sprints are generally 2-4 s long and recovery between sprints is of variable length. Energy production during brief sprints is derived from the degradation of intra-muscular phosphocreatine and glycogen (anaerobic metabolism). Prolonged periods of multiple sprints drain muscle glycogen stores, leading to a decrease in power output and a reduction in general work rate during training and competition. The impact of dietary carbohydrate interventions on team sport performance have been typically assessed using intermittent variable-speed shuttle running over a distance of 20 m. This method has evolved to include specific work to rest ratios and skills specific to team sports such as soccer, rugby and basketball. Increasing liver and muscle carbohydrate stores before sports helps delay the onset of fatigue during prolonged intermittent variable-speed running. Carbohydrate intake during exercise, typically ingested as carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions, is also associated with improved performance. The mechanisms responsible are likely to be the availability of carbohydrate as a substrate for central and peripheral functions. Variable-speed running in hot environments is limited by the degree of hyperthermia before muscle glycogen availability becomes a significant contributor to the onset of fatigue. Finally, ingesting carbohydrate immediately after training and competition will rapidly recover liver and muscle glycogen stores.

The Influence of Carbohydrate Mouth Rinse on Self-Selected Intermittent Running Performance.

This study investigated the influence of mouth rinsing a carbohydrate solution on self-selected intermittent variable-speed running performance. Eleven male amateur soccer players completed a modified version of the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) on 2 occasions separated by 1 wk. The modified LIST allowed the self-selection of running speeds during Block 6 of the protocol (75-90 min). Players rinsed and expectorated 25 ml of noncaloric placebo (PLA) or 10% maltodextrin solution (CHO) for 10 s, routinely during Block 6 of the LIST. Self-selected speeds during the walk and cruise phases of the LIST were similar between trials. Jogging speed was significantly faster during the CHO (11.3 ± 0.7 km · h(-1)) than during the PLA trial (10.5 ± 1.3 km · h(-1)) (p = .010); 15-m sprint speeds were not different between trials (PLA: 2.69 ± 0.18 s: CHO: 2.65 ± 0.13 s) (F(2, 10), p = .157), but significant benefits were observed for sprint distance covered (p = .024). The threshold for the smallest worthwhile change in sprint performance was set at 0.2 s. Inferential statistical analysis showed the chance that CHO mouth rinse was beneficial, negligible, or detrimental to repeated sprint performance was 86%, 10%, and 4%, respectively. In conclusion, mouth rinsing and expectorating a 10% maltodextrin solution was associated with a significant increase in self-selected jogging speed. Repeated 15-m sprint performance was also 86% likely to benefit from routinely mouth rinsing a carbohydrate solution in comparison with a taste-matched placebo.

Effect of carbohydrate or sodium bicarbonate ingestion on performance during a validated basketball simulation test.

Current recommendations for nutritional interventions in basketball are largely extrapolated from laboratory-based studies that are not sport-specific. We therefore adapted and validated a basketball simulation test relative to competitive basketball games using well-trained basketball players (n = 10), then employed this test to evaluate the effects of two common preexercise nutritional interventions on basketball-specific physical and skilled performance. Specifically, in a randomized and counterbalanced order, participants ingested solutions providing either 75 g carbohydrate (sucrose) 45 min before exercise (Study A; n = 10) or 2 × 0.2 g · kg(-1) sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 90 and 20 min before exercise (Study B; n = 7), each relative to appropriate placebos (H2O and 2 × 0.14 g · kg(-1) NaCl, respectively). Heart rate, sweat rate, pedometer count, and perceived exertion did not systematically differ between the 60-min basketball simulation test and competitive basketball, with a strong positive correlation in heart rate response (r = .9, p < .001). Preexercise carbohydrate ingestion resulted in marked hypoglycemia (< 3.5 mmol · l(-1)) throughout the first quarter, coincident with impaired sprinting (+0.08 ± 0.05 second; p = .01) and layup shooting performance (8.5/11 versus 10.3/11 baskets; p < .01). However, ingestion of either carbohydrate or sodium bicarbonate before exercise offset fatigue such that sprinting performance was maintained into the final quarter relative to placebo (Study A: -0.07 ± 0.04 second; p < .01 and Study B: -0.08 ± 0.05 second; p = .02), although neither translated into improved skilled (layup shooting) performance. This basketball simulation test provides a valid reflection of physiological demands in competitive basketball and is sufficiently sensitive to detect meaningful changes in physical and skilled performance. While there are benefits of preexercise carbohydrate or sodium bicarbonate ingestion, these should be balanced against potential negative side effects.

Intense exercise training and immune function.

Regular moderate exercise reduces the risk of infection compared with a sedentary lifestyle, but very prolonged bouts of exercise and periods of intensified training are associated with increased infection risk. In athletes, a common observation is that symptoms of respiratory infection cluster around competitions, and even minor illnesses such as colds can impair exercise performance. There are several behavioral, nutritional and training strategies that can be adopted to limit exercise-induced immunodepression and minimize the risk of infection. Athletes and support staff can avoid transmitting infections by avoiding close contact with those showing symptoms of infection, by practicing good hand, oral and food hygiene and by avoiding sharing drinks bottles and cutlery. Medical staff should consider appropriate immunization for their athletes particularly when travelling to international competitions. The impact of intensive training stress on immune function can be minimized by getting adequate sleep, minimizing psychological stress, avoiding periods of dietary energy restriction, consuming a well-balanced diet that meets energy and protein needs, avoiding deficiencies of micronutrients (particularly iron, zinc, and vitamins A, D, E, B6 and B12), ingesting carbohydrate during prolonged training sessions, and consuming - on a daily basis - plant polyphenol containing supplements or foodstuffs and Lactobacillus probiotics.

Growth-hormone responses to consecutive exercise bouts with ingestion of carbohydrate plus protein.

Endocrine responses to repeated exercise have barely been investigated, and no data are available regarding the mediating influence of nutrition. On 3 occasions, participants ran for 90 min at 70% VO2max (R1) before a second exhaustive treadmill run at the same intensity (R2; 91.6 ± 17.9 min). During the intervening 4-hr recovery, participants ingested either 0.8 g sucrose · kg-1 · hr-1 with 0.3 g · kg-1 · hr-1 whey-protein isolate (CHO-PRO), 0.8 g sucrose · kg-1 · hr-1 (CHO), or 1.1 g sucrose · kg-1 · hr-1 (CHO-CHO). The latter 2 solutions therefore matched the former for carbohydrate or for available energy, respectively. Serum growth-hormone concentrations increased from 2 ± 1 µg/L to 17 ± 8 µg/L during R1 considered across all treatments (M ± SD; p ≤ .01). Concentrations were similar immediately after R2 irrespective of whether CHO or CHO-CHO was ingested (19 ± 4 µg/L and 19 ± 5 µg/L, respectively), whereas ingestion of CHO-PRO produced an augmented response (31 ± 4 µg/L; p ≤ .05). Growth-hormone-binding protein concentrations were unaffected by R1 but increased similarly across all treatments during R2 (from 414 ± 202 pmol/L to 577 ± 167 pmol/L; p ≤ .01), as was the case for plasma total testosterone (from 9.3 ± 3.3 nmol/L to 14.7 ± 4.6 nmol/L; p ≤ .01). There was an overall treatment effect for serum cortisol (p ≤ .05), with no specific differences at any given time point but lower concentrations immediately after R2 with CHO-PRO (608 ± 133 nmol/L) than with CHO (796 ± 278 nmol/L) or CHO-CHO (838 ± 134 nmol/L). Ingesting carbohydrate with added whey-protein isolate during short-term recovery from 90 min of treadmill running increases the growth-hormone response to a second exhaustive exercise bout of similar duration.

Isokinetic and isometric muscle function of the knee extensors and flexors during simulated soccer activity: effect of exercise and dehydration.

This study investigated the influence of dehydration during soccer-type intermittent exercise on isokinetic and isometric muscle function. Eight soccer players performed two 90-min high-intensity intermittent shuttle-running trials without (NF) or with (FL) fluid ingestion (5 ml · kg(-1) before and 2 ml · kg(-1) every 15 min). Isokinetic and isometric strength and muscular power of knee flexors and knee extensors were measured pre-exercise, at half-time and post-exercise using isokinetic dynamometry. Sprint performance was monitored throughout the simulated-soccer exercise. Isokinetic knee strength was reduced at faster (3.13 rad · s(-1); P = 0.009) but not slower (1.05 rad · s(-1); P = 0.063) contraction speeds with exercise; however, there was no difference between FL and NF. Peak isometric strength of the knee extensors (P = 0.002) but not the knee flexors (P = 0.065) was significantly reduced with exercise with no difference between FL and NF. Average muscular power was reduced over time at both 1.05 rad · s(-1) (P = 0.01) and 3.14 rad · s(-1) (P = 0.033) but was not different between FL and NF. Mean 15-m sprint time increased with duration of exercise (P = 0.005) but was not different between FL and NF. In summary, fluid ingestion during 90 min of soccer-type exercise was unable to offset the reduction in isokinetic and isometric strength and muscular power of the knee extensors and flexors.

Growth Hormone Responses to Consecutive Exercise Bouts with Ingestion of Carbohydrate plus Protein.

Endocrine responses to repeated exercise have hardly been investigated and no data are available regarding the mediating influence of nutrition. On three occasions, participants ran for 90 min at 70% VO2max (R1) before a second exhaustive treadmill run at the same intensity (R2; 91.6 ± 17.9 min). During the intervening 4 h recovery, participants ingested either: (i) 0.8 g sucrose·kg-1·h-1 with 0.3 g·kg-1·h-1 whey protein isolate (CHO-PRO); (ii) 0.8 g sucrose·kg-1·h-1 (CHO) or; (iii) 1.1 g sucrose·kg-1·h-1 (CHO-CHO). The latter two solutions therefore matched the former for carbohydrate or for available energy, respectively. Serum growth hormone concentrations increased from 1.7±0.9 µg·l-1 to 16.7±7.8 µg·l-1 during R1 considered across all treatments (means±standard deviations; P≤0.01). Concentrations were similar immediately after R2 irrespective of whether CHO or CHO-CHO was ingested (19±4 µg·l-1 and 19±5µg·l-1, respectively), whereas ingestion of CHO-PRO produced an augmented response (31±4µg·l-1; P≤0.05). Growth hormone binding protein concentrations were unaffected by R1 but increased similarly across all treatments during R2 (414±202 pmol·l-1 to 577±167 pmol·l-1; P≤0.01), as was the case for plasma total testosterone (9.3±3.3 nmol·l-1 to 14.7±4.6 nmol·l-1; P≤0.01). There was an overall treatment effect for serum cortisol (P≤0.05), with no specific differences at any given time-point but lower concentrations immediately after R2 with CHO-PRO (608±133 nmol·l-1) than CHO (796±278 nmol·l-1) or CHO-CHO (838±134 nmol·l-1). Ingesting carbohydrate with added whey protein isolate during short-term recovery from 90 minutes of treadmill running increases the growth hormone response to a second exhaustive exercise bout of similar duration.

The effect of carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage drinking strategy on 10-mile running performance.

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the influence of ingesting a carbohydrate-electrolyte (CHO-E) beverage ad libitum or as a prescribed volume on 10-mile run performance and gastrointestinal (GI) discomfort. Nine male recreational runners completed the 10-mile run under the following 3 conditions: no drinking (ND; 0 ml, 0 g CHO), ad libitum drinking (AD; 315 ± 123 ml, 19 ± 7 g CHO), and prescribed drinking (PD; 1,055 ± 90 ml, 64 ± 5 g CHO). During the AD and PD trials, drinks were provided on completion of Miles 2, 4, 6, and 8. Running performance, speed (km/hr), and 10-mile run time were assessed using a global positioning satellite system. The runners' ratings of perceived exertion and GI comfort were recorded on completion of each lap of the 10-mile run. There was a significant difference (p < .10) in performance times for the 10-mile race for the ND, AD, and PD trials, which were 72:05 ± 3:36, 71:14 ± 3:35, and 72:12 ± 3.53 min:s, respectively (p = .094). Ratings of GI comfort were reduced during the PD trial in comparison with both AD and ND trials. In conclusion, runners unaccustomed to habitually drinking CHO-E beverages during training improved their 10-mile race performance with AD drinking a CHO-E beverage, in comparison with drinking a prescribed volume of the same beverage or no drinking.

Effect of mouth-rinsing carbohydrate solutions on endurance performance.

Ingesting carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during exercise has been reported to benefit self-paced time-trial performance. The mechanism responsible for this ergogenic effect is unclear. For example, during short duration (≤1 hour), intense (>70% maximal oxygen consumption) exercise, euglycaemia is rarely challenged and adequate muscle glycogen remains at the cessation of exercise. The absence of a clear metabolic explanation has led authors to speculate that ingesting carbohydrate solutions during exercise may have a 'non-metabolic' or 'central effect' on endurance performance. This hypothesis has been explored by studies investigating the performance responses of subjects when carbohydrate solutions are mouth rinsed during exercise. The solution is expectorated before ingestion, thus removing the provision of carbohydrate to the peripheral circulation. Studies using this method have reported that simply having carbohydrate in the mouth is associated with improvements in endurance performance. However, the performance response appears to be dependent upon the pre-exercise nutritional status of the subject. Furthermore, the ability to identify a central effect of a carbohydrate mouth rinse maybe affected by the protocol used to assess its impact on performance. Studies using functional MRI and transcranial stimulation have provided evidence that carbohydrate in the mouth stimulates reward centres in the brain and increases corticomotor excitability, respectively. However, further research is needed to determine whether the central effects of mouth-rinsing carbohydrates, which have been seen at rest and during fatiguing exercise, are responsible for improved endurance performance.

Caffeine ingestion, affect and perceived exertion during prolonged cycling.

Caffeine's metabolic and performance effects have been widely reported. However, caffeine's effects on affective states during prolonged exercise are unknown. Therefore, this was examined in the present study. Following an overnight fast and in a randomised, double-blind, counterbalanced design, twelve endurance trained male cyclists performed 90 min of exercise at 70% VO(2 max) 1h after ingesting 6 mg kg⁻¹ BM of caffeine (CAF) or placebo (PLA). Dimensions of affect and perceived exertion were assessed at regular intervals. During exercise, pleasure ratings were better maintained (F(3,38)=4.99, P < 0.05) in the CAF trial compared to the PLA trial with significantly higher ratings at 15, 30 and 75 min (all P < 0.05). Perceived exertion increased (F(3,38) = 19.86, P < 0.01) throughout exercise and values, overall, were significantly lower (F(1,11) = 9.26, P < 0.05) in the CAF trial compared to the PLA trial. Perceived arousal was elevated during exercise but did not differ between trials. Overall, the results suggest that a moderate dose of CAF ingested 1h prior to exercise maintains a more positive subjective experience during prolonged cycling. This observation may partially explain caffeine's ergogenic effects.

Oxidative stress, inflammation and recovery of muscle function after damaging exercise: effect of 6-week mixed antioxidant supplementation.

There is no consensus regarding the effects of mixed antioxidant vitamin C and/or vitamin E supplementation on oxidative stress responses to exercise and restoration of muscle function. Thirty-eight men were randomly assigned to receive either placebo group (n = 18) or mixed antioxidant (primarily vitamin C & E) supplements (n = 20) in a double-blind manner. After 6 weeks, participants performed 90 min of intermittent shuttle-running. Peak isometric torque of the knee flexors/extensors and range of motion at this joint were determined before and after exercise, with recovery of these variables tracked for up to 168 h post-exercise. Antioxidant supplementation elevated pre-exercise plasma vitamin C (93 ± 8 µmol l(-1)) and vitamin E (11 ± 3 µmol l(-1)) concentrations relative to baseline (P < 0.001) and the placebo group (P ≤ 0.02). Exercise reduced peak isometric torque (i.e. 9-19% relative to baseline; P ≤ 0.001), which persisted for the first 48 h of recovery with no difference between treatment groups. In contrast, changes in the urine concentration of F(2)-isoprostanes responded differently to each treatment (P = 0.04), with a tendency for higher concentrations after 48 h of recovery in the supplemented group (6.2 ± 6.1 vs. 3.7 ± 3.4 ng ml(-1)). Vitamin C & E supplementation also affected serum cortisol concentrations, with an attenuated increase from baseline to the peak values reached after 1 h of recovery compared with the placebo group (P = 0.02) and serum interleukin-6 concentrations were higher after 1 h of recovery in the antioxidant group (11.3 ± 3.4 pg ml(-1)) than the placebo group (6.2 ± 3.8 pg ml(-1); P = 0.05). Combined vitamin C & E supplementation neither reduced markers of oxidative stress or inflammation nor did it facilitate recovery of muscle function after exercise-induced muscle damage.

Influence of ingesting versus mouth rinsing a carbohydrate solution during a 1-h run.

PURPOSE: To investigate the influence of ingesting versus mouth rinsing a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution on 1-h running performance. METHODS: After a 14- to 15-h fast, 10 endurance-trained male runners (mean ± SD: VO2peak = 65.0 ± 4.4 mL·kg(-1)·min(-1)) completed three 1-h performance runs separated by 1 wk. In random order, runners ingested either a 8-mL·kg(-1) body mass of either a 6.4% carbohydrate-electrolyte solution (CHO) or a placebo solution (P) 30 min before or a 2-mL·kg(-1) body mass at 15-min intervals throughout the 1-h run. On a separate occasion, runners mouth rinsed (R) a 6.4% CHO, i.e., without ingestion, at the same times as in the ingestion trials. RESULTS: Total distances covered in the CHO, P, and R trials were 14,515 ± 756, 14,190 ± 800, and 14,283 ± 758 m, respectively. Runners covered 320 m more (90% confidence interval = 140-510 m, P = 0.01) during the CHO trial compared with the P trial and 230 m more (90% confidence interval = 83-380 m, P = 0.019) in comparison with the R trial. There was no difference in n distance covered between the R and P trials (P = 1.0). CONCLUSIONS: A greater distance was covered after the mouth rinse and ingestion of a 6.4% CHO during a 1-h performance run than when mouth rinsing the same solution or mouth rinsing followed by the ingestion of the same volume of a placebo solution.

Short-term recovery from prolonged exercise: exploring the potential for protein ingestion to accentuate the benefits of carbohydrate supplements.

This review considers aspects of the optimal nutritional strategy for recovery from prolonged moderate to high intensity exercise. Dietary carbohydrate represents a central component of post-exercise nutrition. Therefore, carbohydrate should be ingested as early as possible in the post-exercise period and at frequent (i.e. 15- to 30-minute) intervals throughout recovery to maximize the rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis. Solid and liquid carbohydrate supplements or whole foods can achieve this aim with equal effect but should be of high glycaemic index and ingested following the feeding schedule described above at a rate of at least 1 g/kg/h in order to rapidly and sufficiently increase both blood glucose and insulin concentrations throughout recovery. Adding ≥0.3 g/kg/h of protein to a carbohydrate supplement results in a synergistic increase in insulin secretion that can, in some circumstances, accelerate muscle glycogen resynthesis. Specifically, if carbohydrate has not been ingested in quantities sufficient to maximize the rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis, the inclusion of protein may at least partially compensate for the limited availability of ingested carbohydrate. Some studies have reported improved physical performance with ingestion of carbohydrate-protein mixtures, both during exercise and during recovery prior to a subsequent exercise test. While not all of the evidence supports these ergogenic benefits, there is clearly the potential for improved performance under certain conditions, e.g. if the additional protein increases the energy content of a supplement and/or the carbohydrate fraction is ingested at below the recommended rate. The underlying mechanism for such effects may be partly due to increased muscle glycogen resynthesis during recovery, although there is varied support for other factors such as an increased central drive to exercise, a blunting of exercise-induced muscle damage, altered metabolism during exercise subsequent to recovery, or a combination of these mechanisms.