Prevalence and correlates of recent vaginal douching among African American adolescent females.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence and correlates of vaginal douching among urban African American adolescents and to examine the association between douching and sexually transmitted infection (STI) status. DESIGN: Demographic, psychosocial, and behavioral data were collected through cross-sectional, self-administered surveys. Self-collected vaginal swabs were assayed using nucleic acid amplification tests for trichomoniasis, chlamydia, and gonorrhea. SETTING: Sexual health clinic in a large metropolitan area of the southeastern United States. PARTICIPANTS: African American females (N = 701), ages 14-20, participating in a human immunodeficiency virus prevention intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: The outcome of interest was the association between vaginal douching (lifetime, past 90 days, and past 7 days) with demographic characteristics (eg, age, education, and socioeconomic status), physical and mental health status, STI status, sexual behavior (eg, number of vaginal sexual partners, age of sex partners, consistent condom use in the past 90 days, sex while self/partner was high on drugs or alcohol), and psychosocial characteristics (eg, sexual adventurism, social support, peer norms, sexual satisfaction, self-efficacy for sex refusal, self-esteem, relationship power, risk avoidance). RESULTS: Forty-three percent reported ever douching, and 29% reported douching in the past 90 days. In bivariate analyses, recent douching was associated with demographic, behavioral, and psychosocial variables, but not current STI status. In multivariate analyses, recent douching was associated with age (odds ratio [AOR] = 1.13, confidence interval [CI] = 1.02-1.25), lower socioeconomic status (AOR = 1.25, CI = 1.05-1.47), and having sex with much older partners (AOR = 1.87, CI = 1.22-2.86). CONCLUSION: Increased age, lower socioeconomic status, and older partners may be salient risk factors for douching behavior among African American young women.

Evaluation of an HIV/STD sexual risk-reduction intervention for pregnant African American adolescents attending a prenatal clinic in an urban public hospital: preliminary evidence of efficacy.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To evaluate an intervention to reduce HIV/STD-associated behaviors and enhance psychosocial mediators for pregnant African-American adolescents. DESIGN: A randomized controlled trial. Participants completed baseline and follow-up assessments. SETTING: An urban public hospital in the Southeastern U.S. PARTICIPANTS: Pregnant African-American adolescents (N=170), 14-20 years of age, attending a prenatal clinic. INTERVENTION: Intervention participants received two 4-hr group sessions enhancing self-concept and self-worth, HIV/STD prevention skills, and safer sex practices. Participants in the comparison condition received a 2-hr session on healthy nutrition. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Consistent condom use. RESULTS: Intervention participants reported greater condom use at last intercourse (adjusted odds ratio=3.9, P=0.05) and consistent condom use (AOR=7.9, P=0.05), higher sexual communication frequency, enhanced ethnic pride, higher self-efficacy to refuse risky sex, and were less likely to fear abandonment as a result of negotiating safer sex. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions for pregnant African-American adolescents can enhance condom use and psychosocial mediators.

Exposure to alcohol problems and its association with sexual behaviour and biologically confirmed Trichomonas vaginalis among women living with HIV.

OBJECTIVES: Only a small number of studies have examined the association between alcohol use and risky sexual behaviour among women living with HIV, particularly African-American women. The present study examined the association between alcohol problems, sexual behaviour and biologically confirmed sexually transmitted infections (STI) among a sample of predominantly African-American women living with HIV. METHODS: A sample of 366 women living with HIV between the ages of 18 and 50 years participated in the study. The majority of women were African-American (84.2%). Participants completed a face-to-face interview assessing sociodemographics, sexual behaviour, other substance use and alcohol problems using the CAGE (Cut down, Annoyed, Guilty, Eye opener), a screening measure for alcohol abuse. Participants also provided self-collected vaginal swab specimens that were assayed for STI. RESULTS: The prevalence of high scores on the CAGE was 54.5% and 15% of women tested positive for Trichomonas vaginalis. Multivariate logistic regression analyses, with age and other substance use as covariates, indicated that women who scored higher on the CAGE, relative to those who scored lower, were more likely to test positive for T vaginalis, have sex with their spouse or steady partner when only they had been drinking and have sex with their spouse or steady partner when they had both been drinking. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that alcohol assessment should be included in regular healthcare maintenance among women living with HIV. Intervention programmes should be tailored to address alcohol use/abuse among African-American women living with HIV.

SISTA South Africa: The Adaptation of an Efficacious HIV Prevention Trial Conducted with African-American Women for isiXhosa-speaking South African Women

Although new HIV treatments continue to offer hope for individuals living with HIV; behavioural interventions shown to reduce HIV risk behaviour remain one of the most powerful tools in curbing the HIV epidemic. Unfortu- nately; the development of evidencebased HIV interventions is a resource-intensive process that has not progressed as quickly as the epidemiology of the disease. As the epidemic continues to evolve; there is a need to expedite the development of evidence-based HIV interventions for populations that are often disproportionately impacted by HIV/AIDS. One mechanism of accelerating the development process is to adapt evidence-based HIV interventions for vulnerable populations. The aim of this paper was to describe the adaptation process of a HIV intervention for African-American women for black South African Xhosa women. For African-American women the intervention was effective in increasing consistent condom use; sexual self-control; sexual communication; sexual assertiveness and partner adoption of norms supporting consistent condom use

Biologically confirmed sexually transmitted infection and depressive symptomatology among African-American female adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To determine prospectively the relation between sexually transmitted infection (STI) diagnosis and depressive symptomatology. METHODS: Secondary data analyses were performed on 175 sexually active African-American female adolescents, who were recruited from high risk neighbourhoods in Birmingham, Alabama, United States. RESULTS: ANCOVA was used to compare adolescents who tested positive with adolescents who tested negative on three waves of depressive symptom scores, controlling for age. The STI positive group had higher depressive symptom levels at 6 months relative to the STI negative group. This result was moderated by baseline depressive symptom levels: for adolescents above the clinical threshold, the STI negative group experienced a decrease in symptoms at 6 months whereas the STI positive group maintained the same level. For adolescents below the clinical threshold, there were no changes in depressive symptom levels regardless of diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Receiving an STI diagnosis may affect depressive symptomatology for those at risk for depression. Screening for depression in settings that provide STI testing and treatment may be warranted for this population.

Real-time PCR improves detection of Trichomonas vaginalis infection compared with culture using self-collected vaginal swabs.

OBJECTIVE: To compare a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay with broth culture for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis using self-collected vaginal swabs. METHODS: Self-collected vaginal swabs were obtained from adolescent and young adult African-American women participating in HIV-1 prevention programs. T. vaginalis culture was performed using the InPouch TV System. Samples for the real-time PCR assay were collected using the BDProbeTec ET Culturette Direct Dry Swab system and tested in a laboratory-developed assay which targeted a repeated sequence of the genome. Discrepant samples that were culture negative and positive in the real-time PCR assay were tested in a confirmatory PCR which targeted a different region of the T. vaginalis genome, the18S ribosomal DNA gene. RESULTS: Of the 524 specimens tested by both culture and real-time PCR, 36 were culture positive and 54 were positive in the real-time PCR assay; 16 of the 18 discrepant specimens were also positive in the confirmatory PCR assay. Using a modified gold standard of positive by culture or positive in both PCR assays, the sensitivity of the real-time PCR assay was 100% and the specificity was 99.6%, whereas culture had a sensitivity of 69.2% and a specificity of 100%. CONCLUSIONS: The real-time PCR assay was sensitive and specific for the detection of T. vaginalis DNA from self-collected vaginal swab specimens. The ability to use the BDProbeTec dry swab system for the real-time PCR testing allowed for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and T. vaginalis from a single specimen.

Predictors of infection with Trichomonas vaginalis: a prospective study of low income African-American adolescent females.

OBJECTIVES: To identify psychosocial predictors of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among low income African-American adolescent females living in a high risk urban area of the United States. METHODS: Baseline plus 6 and 12 month follow up data collected as part of an HIV prevention intervention trial were utilised. The baseline sample consisted of 522 African-American females, 14-18 years of age. Recruitment sites were located in low income neighbourhoods of Birmingham, Alabama, characterised by high rates of unemployment, substance abuse, violence, teenage pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections. Self administered vaginal swab specimens were cultured for T vaginalis. Baseline measures collected as part of a self administered survey and face to face interviews were used to predict subsequent infection with T vaginalis at any of the three assessment periods conducted over the span of 1 year. RESULTS: At baseline, 12.9% were diagnosed with T vaginalis. At the 6 and 12 month follow ups, T vaginalis was diagnosed in 8.9% and 10.2%, respectively. The strongest multivariate predictor of T vaginalis infection was biologically confirmed marijuana use; those using marijuana were more than six times as likely to test positive for T vaginalis (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 6.2, p = 0.0003). Other multivariate predictors were reporting that typical sex partners were at least 5 years older (AOR = 2.6; p = 0.005), reporting sex with non-steady partners (AOR = 1.9; p = 0.02), and history of delinquency (AOR = 1.3; p = 0.02). The odds of testing positive increased by 31% for every one unit increase on a six item scale measure of delinquency. CONCLUSIONS: Infection with T vaginalis was common and significant multivariate predictors comprised a constellation of problem behaviours, each of which are potentially amenable to behavioural intervention.

Enhancing STD/HIV prevention among adolescents: the importance of parenteral monitoring.

The risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV infection is one of the most significant and immediate risks to the health and well being of adolescents. One promising strategy to protect adolescents from STD/HIV infection is to promote parental monitoring. In this article, we first review selected observational studies that provide evidence supporting the value of parental monitoring in reducing adolescents' risk of STD/HIV acquisition. Subsequently, we discuss the potential implications of the research in regards to clinic- and community-based STD/HIV prevention programs for adolescents.

A prospective study of psychological distress and sexual risk behavior among black adolescent females.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the study was to examine the association between adolescents' psychological distress and their sexually transmitted disease/human immunodeficiency virus (STD/HIV)-associated sexual behaviors and attitudes. METHOD: Sexually active black adolescent females (N = 522) completed, at baseline and again 6 months later, a self-administered questionnaire that assessed sexual health attitudes and emotional distress symptoms (using standardized measures, alpha =.84), a structured interview that assessed STD/HIV-associated sexual risk behaviors, and a urine screen for pregnancy. RESULTS: In multivariate analyses, controlling for observed covariates, adolescents with significant distress at baseline were more likely than their peers, after 6 months, to be pregnant (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: = 2.0), have had unprotected vaginal sex (AOR = 2.1), have nonmonogamous sex partners (AOR = 1.7), and not use any form of contraception (AOR = 1.5). Additionally, they were also more likely to: perceive barriers to condom use (AOR = 2.2), be fearful of the adverse consequences of negotiating condom use (AOR = 2.0), perceive less control in their relationship (AOR = 2.0), have experienced dating violence (AOR = 2.4), feel less efficacious in negotiating condom use with a new sex partner (AOR = 1.6), and have norms nonsupportive of a healthy sexual relationship (AOR = 1.7). DISCUSSION: The findings suggest that psychological distress is predictive over a 6-month period of a spectrum of STD/HIV-associated sexual behaviors and high-risk attitudes. Brief screening to detect distress or depressive symptoms among adolescent females can alert the clinician to the need to conduct a sexual health history, initiate STD/HIV-preventive counseling, and refer for comprehensive psychological assessment and appropriate treatment. Among adolescents receiving STD treatment, those with even moderate emotional distress may be at heightened risk for further unhealthy outcomes. STD/HIV interventions should also consider psychological distress as one potential risk factor that may impact program efficacy.

Correlates of adolescent females' worry about undesired pregnancy. the importance of partner desire for pregnancy.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine correlates of worry about pregnancy among a high-risk sample of low-income African-American adolescent females. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that perceived male partner desire for pregnancy and level of sexual communication would be independently associated with adolescent females' worry about becoming pregnant. DESIGN: A survey of sexually active African-American adolescent females, 14-18 years of age. SETTING: Recruitment was conducted in low-income neighborhoods of Birmingham, Alabama, characterized by high rates of unemployment, substance abuse, violence, and teen pregnancy. PARTICIPANTS: Adolescents (N = 522) completed a survey and a face-to-face interview, and provided a urine specimen for pregnancy testing. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Nonpregnant adolescents reporting steady relationships with a male sex partner (over the past 6 months) and indicating no immediate desire to become pregnant were included in the analysis (n = 196). Two questionnaire items assessed level of worry about becoming pregnant. RESULTS: Compared to adolescent females reporting their partner did not desire pregnancy, those perceiving their partner desired pregnancy were nearly three times more likely to experience high worry about becoming pregnant (AOR = 2.85; P =.009). Engaging in sex unprotected by a condom was an equally important correlate of high worry (AOR = 2.84; P =.013). Level of communication between partners about pregnancy prevention was not significant. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent females may experience high worry about becoming pregnant due to desires of their male partner as well as their recent sexual risk behavior.

Parent-adolescent communication and sexual risk behaviors among African American adolescent females.

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between parent-adolescent communication about sex-related topics and the sex-related communication and practices of African American adolescent females with partners, as well as their perceived ability to negotiate safer sex. DESIGN: A theory-guided survey and structured interview were administered to 522 sexually active African American females 14 to 18 years old. Recruitment sites were neighborhoods with high rates of unemployment, substance abuse, violence, and sexually transmitted diseases. Multivariate analyses, controlling for observed covariates, were used to identify the association of less frequent parent-adolescent communication with multiple assessed outcomes. RESULTS: Less frequent parent-adolescent communication (scores below the median) was associated with adolescents' non-use of contraceptives in the past 6 months (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.7) and non-use of contraceptives during the last 5 sexual encounters (AOR = 1.6). Less communication increased the odds of never using condoms in the past month (AOR = 1.6), during the last 5 sexual encounters (AOR = 1.7), and at last intercourse (AOR = 1.7). Less communication was also associated with less communication between adolescents and their sex partners (AOR = 3.3) and lower self-efficacy to negotiate safer sex (AOR = 1.8). CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrate the importance of involving parents in human immunodeficiency virus/sexually transmitted disease and pregnancy prevention efforts directed at female adolescents. Pediatricians and other clinicians can play an important role in facilitating parent-adolescent communication about sexual activity.

HIV/STD-protective benefits of living with mothers in perceived supportive families: a study of high-risk African American female teens.

BACKGROUND: The joint influence of living with the mother in a perceived supportive family may be an important HIV/STD-protective factor among sexually active female adolescents. METHODS: Sexually active African American female adolescents (N = 522) completed a self-administered survey and structured interview. Adolescents scoring high on family support and reporting that their mother lived with them were compared with the remaining adolescents in respect to unprotected vaginal sex (past 30 days), sex with a non-steady partner (past 6 months), communication with sex partners, attitudes toward condoms, and perceived ability to negotiate condom use. Logistic regression analyses controlled for the influence of parent-adolescent communication about sex and parental monitoring. RESULTS: Adolescents residing with their mothers in a perceived supportive family were more likely to communicate with their sex partners about sexual risk (OR = 1.53). They were less likely to report sex with a non-steady partner (OR = 0.51) or having unprotected sex with a steady partner (OR = 0.52) or any partner (OR = 0.55). CONCLUSIONS: Controlled analyses suggest that living with the mother in a perceived supportive family is an important HIV/STD-protective factor among female adolescents. HIV/STD prevention programs for female adolescents that include the mothers may promote positive and lasting effects.

Correct condom application among African-American adolescent females: the relationship to perceived self-efficacy and the association to confirmed STDs.

PURPOSE: To assess condom application ability and the relationship between perceived ability and demonstrated ability. Also, to examine the association between high-demonstrated condom application ability and recent sexual risk behaviors and laboratory-diagnosed sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among African-American adolescent females. METHODS: A purposeful sample of sexually active African-American females (n = 522) completed a structured interview and provided vaginal swab specimens for STD testing. Subsequent to the interview, adolescents demonstrated their condom application skills using a penile model. A 9-item scale assessed adolescents' perceived self-efficacy to apply condoms. Sexual risk behaviors assessed by interview were noncondom use at last intercourse and the last five intercourse occasions for steady and casual sex partners as well as any unprotected vaginal sex in the past 30 days and the past 6 months. RESULTS: Approximately 28% of the sample tested positive for at least one STD and nearly 26% self-reported a history of STDs. Controlled analyses indicated that adolescents' self-efficacy for correct use was not related to demonstrated skill. Adolescents' demonstrated ability was not related to any of the sexual risk behaviors. Likewise, recent experience applying condoms to a partner's penis and demonstrated ability were not related to laboratory-diagnosed STDs or self-reported STD history. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescents may unknowingly be at risk for human immunodeficiency virus and STD infection owing to incorrect condom application. Further, high-demonstrated ability to apply condoms was not related to safer sex or STDs. Reducing sexual risk behaviors may require more than enhancing adolescent females' condom application skills and may require addressing other relational skills.

Condom carrying is not associated with condom use and lower prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases among minority adolescent females.

BACKGROUND: Most of the studies associated with condom carrying and use have been conducted with adults. Because minority teenage females are particularly at risk for STD/HIV infection, further investigations specifically focusing on this population are warranted. GOAL: To determine whether observed condom carrying among adolescent females was associated with multiple measures of self-reported condom use, self-reported history of sexually transmitted diseases, and prevalence of biologically confirmed sexually transmitted diseases. METHODS: For this study, 522 sexually active African American adolescent females were recruited from low-income neighborhoods in Birmingham, Alabama. Measures of self-reported condom use, STD history, and condom carrying were collected. Adolescents were also tested for three prevalent sexually transmitted diseases. RESULTS: At the time of the assessment, 8% of the adolescents were observed to have a condom with them. Condom carrying was not found to be significantly associated with condom use and prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases. CONCLUSION: Condom carrying may not be an important outcome of sexually transmitted disease/HIV prevention programs designed to reduce HIV/sexually transmitted disease risk among adolescent females.

Validity of self-reported sexually transmitted diseases among African American female adolescents participating in an HIV/STD prevention intervention trial.

BACKGROUND: Studies assessing the validity attributed to self-reported measures of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) clearly are needed, particularly those used for high-risk populations such as female adolescents, in whom STD prevention is a priority. GOAL: To determine the accuracy of self-reported STD test results in female adolescents over a relatively brief period ( approximately 28 days). STUDY DESIGN: A prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial of STD/HIV prevention for African American females, ages 14 to 18, was conducted. Study participants were recruited from medical clinics and school health classes in low-income neighborhoods of Birmingham, Alabama, that had high rates of unemployment, substance abuse, violence, STDs, and teenage pregnancy. RESULTS: Of the 522 adolescents enrolled in the trial, 92% (n = 479) completed baseline STD testing and follow-up surveys. At baseline, 28% had positive test results for at least one disease: 4.8% for Neisseria gonorrhoeae, 17.1% for Chlamydia trachomatis, and 12.3% for Trichomonas vaginalis. Of the adolescents with negative STD test results, 98.8% were accurate in their self-report of STD status, as compared with 68.7% of the adolescents with positive results. Underreporting varied by type of STD. Adolescents who accurately reported their positive STD status were significantly more likely to report their receipt of treatment accurately (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The substantial underreporting of STD incidence in this study suggests that reliance on self-reports of STD history may introduce misclassification bias, potentially leading to false conclusions regarding the efficacy of prevention interventions. This observation highlights the importance of using biologic indicators as outcome measures.

Parental monitoring: association with adolescents' risk behaviors.

CONTEXT: Contemporary threats to adolescents' health are primarily the consequence of risk behaviors and their related adverse outcomes. Identifying factors associated with adolescents' risk behaviors is critical for developing effective prevention strategies. A number of risk factors have been identified, including familial environment; however, few studies have examined the impact of parental monitoring. OBJECTIVE: To examine the influence of less perceived parental monitoring on a spectrum of adolescent health-compromising behaviors and outcomes. Design. Survey. SETTING: A family medicine clinic. Participants. To assess eligibility, recruiters screened a sample of 1130 teens residing in low-income neighborhoods. Adolescents were eligible if they were black females, between the ages of 14 and 18 years, sexually active in the previous 6 months, and provided written informed consent. Most teens (n = 609) were eligible, with 522 (85.7%) agreeing to participate. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Variables in 6 domains were assessed, including: sexually transmitted diseases, sexual behaviors, marijuana use, alcohol use, antisocial behavior, and violence. RESULTS: In logistic regression analyses, controlling for observed covariates, adolescents perceiving less parental monitoring were more likely to test positive for a sexually transmitted disease (odds ratio [OR]: 1.7), report not using a condom at last sexual intercourse (OR: 1.7), have multiple sexual partners in the past 6 months (OR: 2.0), have risky sex partners (OR: 1.5), have a new sex partner in the past 30 days (OR: 3.0), and not use any contraception during the last sexual intercourse episode (OR: 1.9). Furthermore, adolescents perceiving less parental monitoring were more likely to have a history of marijuana use and use marijuana more often in the past 30 days (OR: 2.3 and OR: 2.5, respectively); a history of alcohol use and greater alcohol consumption in the past 30 days (OR: 1.4 and OR: 1.9, respectively); have a history of arrest (OR: 2.1); and there was a trend toward having engaged in fights in the past 6 months (OR: 1.4). CONCLUSIONS: The findings demonstrate a consistent pattern of health risk behaviors and adverse biological outcomes associated with less perceived parental monitoring. Additional research needs to focus on developing theoretical models that help explain the influence of familial environment on adolescent health and develop and evaluate interventions to promote the health of adolescents.

Correlates of using dual methods for sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy prevention among high-risk African-American female teens.

PURPOSE: To identify correlates of consistent dual-method use among African-American female adolescents at risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and pregnancy. METHODS: A convenience sample of 522 sexually active female teens attending adolescent medicine clinics, health department clinics, and school health classes volunteered. Recruitment sites were in low-income neighborhoods of Birmingham, Alabama. Adolescents completed a questionnaire and a face-to-face interview and provided vaginal swab specimens for laboratory diagnosis of STDs. Those reporting use of condoms and at least one other method of contraception, for each of the last five occasions they had sex were classified as consistent dual-method users. The questionnaire assessed frequency of adolescents' communication with their parents and partners about sex. The questionnaire also assessed two measures of parental supervision and adolescents' desire to avoid pregnancy. Multiple logistic regression assessed the independent contribution of each correlate of consistent dual-method use. RESULTS: Seventy-one adolescents (13.6%) were classified as consistent dual-method users. A strong desire to avoid pregnancy was the most influential correlate of consistent dual-method use [odds ratio (OR) =2.3]. Adolescents reporting that their parents generally knew whom they were with (OR = 2.0) and those reporting more frequent communication with parents (OR = 1.9) were also more likely to be consistent dual users. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest the need for research to examine the efficacy of interventions building on adolescent females' desire to avoid pregnancy. Study findings also suggest that interventions promoting improved parent-adolescent communication and improved parental supervision may contribute to adolescents' use of dual methods for STD and pregnancy prevention.