Understanding the addiction cycle: a complex biology with distinct contributions of genotype vs. sex at each stage.

Ethanol abuse can lead to addiction, brain damage and premature death. The cycle of alcohol addiction has been described as a composite consisting of three stages: intoxication, withdrawal and craving/abstinence. There is evidence for contributions of both genotype and sex to alcoholism, but an understanding of the biological underpinnings is limited. Utilizing both sexes of genetic animal models with highly divergent alcohol withdrawal severity, Withdrawal Seizure-Resistant (WSR) and Withdrawal Seizure-Prone (WSP) mice, the distinct contributions of genotype/phenotype and of sex during addiction stages on neuroadaptation were characterized. Transcriptional profiling was performed to identify expression changes as a consequence of chronic intoxication in the medial prefrontal cortex. Significant expression differences were identified on a single platform and tracked over a behaviorally relevant time course that covered each stage of alcohol addiction; i.e., after chronic intoxication, during peak withdrawal, and after a defined period of abstinence. Females were more sensitive to ethanol with higher fold expression differences. Bioinformatics showed a strong effect of sex on the data structure of expression profiles during chronic intoxication and at peak withdrawal irrespective of genetic background. However, during abstinence, differences were observed instead between the lines/phenotypes irrespective of sex. Confirmation of identified pathways showed distinct inflammatory signaling following intoxication at peak withdrawal, with a pro-inflammatory phenotype in females but overall suppression of immune signaling in males. Combined, these results suggest that each stage of the addiction cycle is influenced differentially by sex vs. genetic background and support the development of stage- and sex-specific therapies for alcohol withdrawal and the maintenance of sobriety.

Importance of genetic background for risk of relapse shown in altered prefrontal cortex gene expression during abstinence following chronic alcohol intoxication.

Alcoholism is a relapsing disorder associated with excessive consumption after periods of abstinence. Neuroadaptations in brain structure, plasticity and gene expression occur with chronic intoxication but are poorly characterized. Here we report identification of pathways altered during abstinence in prefrontal cortex, a brain region associated with cognitive dysfunction and damage in alcoholics. To determine the influence of genetic differences, an animal model was employed with widely divergent responses to alcohol withdrawal, the Withdrawal Seizure-Resistant (WSR) and Withdrawal Seizure-Prone (WSP) lines. Mice were chronically exposed to highly intoxicating concentrations of ethanol and withdrawn, then left abstinent for 21 days. Transcriptional profiling by microarray analyses identified a total of 562 genes as significantly altered during abstinence. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed that the transcriptional response correlated with genotype/withdrawal phenotype rather than sex. Gene Ontology category overrepresentation analysis identified thyroid hormone metabolism, glutathione metabolism, axon guidance and DNA damage response as targeted classes of genes in low response WSR mice, with acetylation and histone deacetylase complex as highly dimorphic between WSR and WSP mice. Confirmation studies in WSR mice revealed both increased neurotoxicity by histopathologic examination and elevated triidothyronine (T3) levels. Most importantly, relapse drinking was reduced by inhibition of thyroid hormone synthesis in dependent WSR mice compared to controls. These findings provide in vivo physiological and behavioral validation of the pathways identified. Combined, these results indicate a fundamentally distinct neuroadaptive response during abstinence in mice genetically selected for divergent withdrawal severity. Identification of pathways altered in abstinence may aid development of novel therapeutics for targeted treatment of relapse in abstinent alcoholics.

Genetically correlated effects of selective breeding for high and low methamphetamine consumption.

Improved prevention and treatment of drug addiction will require deeper understanding of genetic factors contributing to susceptibility to excessive drug use. Intravenous operant self-administration methods have greatly advanced understanding of behavioral traits related to addiction. However, these methods are not suitable for large-scale genetic experiments in mice. Selective breeding of mice can aggregate 'addiction alleles' in a model that has the potential to identify coordinated effects of multiple genes. We produced mouse lines that orally self-administer high (MAHDR) or low (MALDR) amounts of methamphetamine, representing the first demonstration of selective breeding for self-administration of any psychostimulant drug. Conditioned place preference and taste aversion results indicate that MAHDR mice are relatively more sensitive to the rewarding effects and less sensitive to the aversive effects of methamphetamine, compared to MALDR mice. These results validate the oral route of self-administration for investigation of the motivational effects of methamphetamine and provide a viable alternative to intravenous self-administration procedures. Gene expression results for a subset of genes relevant to addiction-related processes suggest differential regulation by methamphetamine of apoptosis and immune pathways in the nucleus accumbens of MAHDR and MALDR mice. In each line, methamphetamine reduced an allostatic state by bringing gene expression back toward 'normal' levels. Genes differentially expressed in the drug-naï ve state, including Slc6a4 (serotonin transporter), Htr3a (serotonin receptor 3A), Rela [nuclear factor kappaB (NFkappaB)] and Fos (cFos), represent candidates whose expression levels may predict methamphetamine consumption and susceptibility to methamphetamine reward and aversion.

Sex differences in the effect of finasteride on acute ethanol withdrawal severity in C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice.

The neurosteroid allopregnanolone (ALLO) is a potent positive modulator of GABAA receptors that can modulate ethanol (EtOH) withdrawal. The 5alpha-reductase inhibitor finasteride can block the formation of ALLO and other GABAergic neurosteroids and also reduce certain effects of EtOH. Treatment with finasteride during chronic EtOH exposure decreased EtOH withdrawal severity and blood EtOH concentrations (BECs), suggesting an additional effect of finasteride on EtOH pharmacokinetics. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of finasteride on acute EtOH withdrawal severity, to minimize the effect of finasteride on EtOH metabolism. Male and female C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice received a pretreatment of finasteride (50 mg/kg i.p.) or vehicle 24 h prior to an injection of EtOH (4 g/kg i.p.) or saline. Handling-induced convulsions (HICs) were scored at baseline, and then over a 24 h period after EtOH or saline injection. In another experiment, plasma estradiol and corticosterone levels were assessed at selected time points (0, 2, 8, and 24 h). In a final study, retro-orbital blood samples were collected at 30, 60, 120, and 240 min post-EtOH administration to access finasteride's effects on EtOH clearance parameters. Pretreatment with finasteride increased acute EtOH withdrawal severity in female C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice but decreased withdrawal severity in male mice of both strains. Finasteride did not alter BECs, EtOH clearance, estradiol, or corticosterone concentrations in a manner that appeared to contribute to the sex difference in finasteride's effect on acute EtOH withdrawal severity. These findings suggest that male and female C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice differ in their sensitivity to changes in ALLO or other GABAergic neurosteroid levels during acute EtOH withdrawal. Sex differences in the modulation of GABAergic 5alpha-reduced steroids may be an important consideration in understanding and developing therapeutic interventions in alcoholics.

Anticonvulsive effects of kappa-opioid receptor modulation in an animal model of ethanol withdrawal.

Although the neurochemical mechanisms contributing to alcohol withdrawal seizures are poorly understood, withdrawal seizures probably reflect neuronal hyperexcitability resulting from adaptation to chronic alcohol. Altered kappa-Opioid receptor (KOP-R) signaling has been observed in multiple seizure types; however, a role for this system in ethanol withdrawal seizures has not been systematically characterized. We hypothesized that pharmacological manipulations of the KOP-R would alter withdrawal in mice selectively bred for differences in ethanol withdrawal severity. Withdrawal Seizure-Prone (WSP) and Withdrawal Seizure-Resistant (WSR) mice were made physically dependent using chronic ethanol vapor inhalation, and the effects of the KOP-R antagonist nor-binaltorphimine or agonist U-50,488H on withdrawal severity were examined. Pretreatment with nor-binaltorphimine significantly increased handling-induced convulsion (HIC) severity in withdrawing WSR mice, with no observable effects in withdrawing WSP mice. In contrast, U-50,488H significantly decreased HIC severity in WSP mice, with no effects in WSR mice. During extended withdrawal (i.e. hours 12+), a rebound hyperexcitability was observed in WSP mice given agonist. Thus, administration of a KOP-R antagonist increased withdrawal severity in mice normally resistant to withdrawal seizures, while a KOP-R agonist reduced convulsion severity in animals susceptible to withdrawal seizures. These observations are consistent with differences in the KOP-R system observed in these lines at the molecular level, and suggest the KOP-R system may be a promising therapeutic target for management of ethanol withdrawal seizures. Finally, these findings underscore the importance of determining the potential for rebound increases in withdrawal severity during later withdrawal episodes.

Androgen inhibition of MAP kinase pathway and Elk-1 activation in proliferating osteoblasts.

Non-aromatizable androgens have significant beneficial effects on skeletal homeostasis independently of conversion to estradiol, but the effects of androgens on bone cell metabolism and cell proliferation are still poorly understood. Using an osteoblastic model with enhanced androgen responsiveness, MC3T3-E1 cells stably transfected with androgen receptor (AR) under the control of the type I collagen promoter (colAR-MC3T3), the effects of androgens on mitogenic signaling were characterized. Cultures were treated with the non-aromatizable androgen 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and the effects on osteoblast viability were determined as measured by an MTT assay. A complex response was observed in that continuous short-term DHT treatment enhanced osteoblast viability, but with longer-term DHT treatment inhibition was observed. The inhibition by DHT was prevented by the specific AR antagonist hydroxyflutamide, and was also observed in primary cultures of normal rat calvarial osteoblasts. In order to identify potential mediators of this effect, mitogenic pathway-specific cDNA microarrays were interrogated. Reduced hybridization of several genes important in MAP kinase-mediated signaling was observed, with the most dramatic effect on Elk-1 expression. Analysis of phosphorylation cascades demonstrated that DHT treatment inhibited phosphoERK1/2 levels, MAP kinase activation of Elk-1, Elk-1 protein and phosphoElk-1 levels, and downstream AP-1/luciferase reporter activity. Together, these data provide the first evidence that androgen inhibition of the MAP kinase signaling pathway is a potential mediator of osteoblast growth, and are consistent with the hypothesis that the MAP cascade may be a specific downstream target of DHT.

Osteoblast differentiation influences androgen and estrogen receptor-alpha and -beta expression.

Significant levels of estrogen and androgens circulate in men and women, and both play an important role in bone metabolism. While it is well established that either estrogen or androgen replacement therapy is effective at ameliorating bone loss associated with hypogonadism, recent evidence nevertheless suggests that estrogen and androgens have distinct molecular actions on the skeleton. In this study, we have employed normal rat calvarial osteoblast cultures to characterize relative expression profiles of estrogen (ERalpha and ERbeta) and androgen receptors (AR) during osteoblast differentiation. Normal osteoblast cultures can proceed through in vitro differentiation with distinct stages of proliferation, matrix maturation and mineralization in the appropriate differentiation medium containing ascorbic acid. Expression profiles of AR, ERalpha and ERbeta in primary cultures during osteoblast differentiation were characterized both by semi-quantitative relative RT-PCR and by Western analysis. In cultures induced to differentiate by growth in the presence of ascorbic acid, the expression profile for each receptor was unique during the course of differentiation. ERalpha levels were elevated during matrix maturation and then declined during mineralization. ERbeta expression was relatively constant throughout differentiation, exhibiting more constitutive expression. In contrast, AR levels were lowest during proliferation, and then increased throughout differentiation with highest levels in the most mature mineralizing cultures. Since steroid hormone action is generally mediated by specific cognate receptors, these results suggest that androgen actions may target cells during the mineralization stage of osteoblast differentiation, while estrogen action through either receptor isoform is more likely to affect osteoblasts earlier during matrix maturation. Interestingly, sex steroid receptor expression profiles did not exhibit the same patterns of regulation if osteoblast cultures were grown without ascorbic acid in medium that did not support extracellular matrix deposition. Thus, sex steroids may distinctly influence skeletal health by differential modulation of function during osteoblast differentiation.

Neurotransmitter action in osteoblasts: expression of a functional system for serotonin receptor activation and reuptake.

Neurotransmitter regulation of bone metabolism has been the subject of increasing interest and investigation. Because serotonin (5-HT) plays a role as a regulator of craniofacial morphogenesis, we investigated the expression and function of 5-HT receptors and the 5-HT transporter (5-HTT) in bone. Primary cultures of rat osteoblasts (rOB) and a variety of clonal osteoblastic cell lines, including ROS 17/2.8, UMR 106-H5, and Py1a, showed mRNA expression for 5-HTT as well as the 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(1D), 5-HT(2A), and 5-HT(2B) receptors by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis. Protein expression of the 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2A), and 5-HT(2B) receptors was confirmed by immunoblot. 5-HTT binding sites were assessed in ROS 17/2.8 and UMR 106-H5 cells by binding of the stable cocaine analog [125I]RTI-55, which showed a relatively high density of nanomolar affinity binding sites. Imipramine and fluoxetine, antagonists with specificity for 5-HTT, showed the highest potency to antagonize [125I]RTI-55 binding in ROS and UMR cells. GBR-12935, a relatively selective dopamine transporter antagonist, had a much lower potency, as did desipramine, a selective norepinephrine transporter antagonist. The maximal [3H]5-HT uptake rate in ROS cells was 110 pmol/10 min per well, with a K(m) value of 1.13 micromol/L. Imipramine and fluoxetine inhibited specific [3H]5-HT uptake with IC(50) values in the nanomolar range. In normal differentiating rOB cultures, 5-HTT functional activity was observed initially at day 25, and activity increased almost eightfold by day 31. In mature rOB cultures, the estimated density of [125I]RTI-55 binding sites was 600 fmol/mg protein. Functional downregulation of transporter activity was assessed after PMA treatment, which caused a significant 40% reduction in the maximal uptake rate of [3H]5-HT, an effect that was prevented by pretreatment with staurosporine. The affinity of 5-HT for the transporter was significantly increased following PMA treatment. We assessed the functional significance of expression of the 5-HT receptors by investigating the interaction between 5-HT and parathyroid hormone (PTH) signaling. 5-HT potentiates the PTH-induced increase in AP-1 activity in UMR cells. These results demonstrate that osteoblastic cells express a functional serotonin system, with mechanisms for responding to and regulating uptake of 5-HT.

Ethanol-regulated gene expression of neuroendocrine specific protein in mice: brain region and genotype specificity.

Neuroendocrine specific protein or reticulon 1 (NSP/RTN1) was identified as a putative ethanol-regulated gene using mRNA differential display in mice genetically selected for severe ethanol withdrawal (withdrawal seizure-prone, WSP). One transcript of RTN1 (3.0 kb) showed a statistically significant increase (13%) in relative abundance in whole brain of ethanol-treated WSP mice but not in mice selected for resistance to ethanol withdrawal convulsions (WSR). We hypothesized that ethanol-induced regulation of gene expression of mRTN1 is specific to mice predisposed to exhibit severe ethanol withdrawal and that the gene might be regulated differentially in specific brain regions. WSP and WSR selected lines and DBA/2J and C57BL/6J inbred strains of mice were exposed to ethanol vapor or air for 72 h. mRNA steady-state expression of RTN1 was assessed in hippocampus, cortex, and cerebellum. Results indicated that the pattern of ethanol-induced changes in gene expression was dependent upon transcript size, brain region, and genotype. Modest increases in the relative abundance of both transcripts of RTN1 were observed in the hippocampus and cortex of all ethanol-treated mice. Results from cerebellum showed a moderate decrease in expression of RTN1 (3.0 kb transcript) in WSP and DBA/2J mice, but not in the mice resistant to ethanol withdrawal (C57BL/6J and WSR). These results suggest a genotype-specific effect of chronic ethanol exposure on steady-state mRNA levels of RTN1 in the cerebellum. Overall, the results indicate a complex pattern of ethanol-induced regulation of the putative mouse homologue of RTN1 and suggest that specific brain regional changes may be involved in the expression of physical dependence.

Elevated prodynorphin expression associated with ethanol withdrawal convulsions.

The hypothesis that kappa-opioid system activity may in part mediate convulsions exhibited during ethanol withdrawal was tested by exposing Withdrawal Seizure-Prone (WSP) and Withdrawal Seizure-Resistant (WSR) mice to chronic ethanol. Whole brain was harvested for RNA isolation and prodynorphin mRNA steady-state levels in whole brain were examined using Northern blot analysis. The data revealed significantly increased levels of prodynorphin mRNA expression in mice susceptible to ethanol withdrawal convulsions after withdrawal, with no corresponding increase in prodynorphin steady-state levels in mice resistant to ethanol withdrawal convulsions. These findings were not due to basal differences in prodynorphin expression between the WSP and WSR mice. To verify that the differences observed were not due to an ethanol-induced global alteration in gene transcription, mRNA levels of the housekeeping gene glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase were measured. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase expression was unchanged following both chronic exposure to ethanol and chronic exposure followed by withdrawal. These results extend our understanding of prodynorphin's role in generalized seizure activity to include ethanol withdrawal-induced convulsions. Our findings suggest that prodynorphin expression is modulated during ethanol withdrawal convulsions, or alternatively, prodynorphin may mediate the severity of ethanol withdrawal convulsions.

Identification of neuroendocrine-specific protein as an ethanol-regulated gene with mRNA differential display.

Chronic ethanol exposure produces changes in behavior that may result from effects of ethanol on gene expression. To identify potentially ethanol-regulated genes, mRNA differential display was used to screen the expressed genes in whole brain of mice chronically exposed to ethanol vapors. Mice genetically selected for susceptibility (Withdrawal Seizure-Prone; WSP) or resistance (Withdrawal Seizure-Resistant; WSR) to ethanol withdrawal convulsions were exposed to either ethanol vapor (ETOH group) or air (CTL group) for 72 h. A putative ethanol-regulated product was isolated; nucleotide sequence analysis of this product revealed >85% nucleotide identity to human neuroendocrine-specific protein (NSP) gene. Northern analysis of the expression of this product revealed hybridization to two transcripts ( approximately 3.0 kb and 1.4 kb) on blots containing whole brain RNA, consistent with the transcript sizes of hNSP. Ethanol-induced regulation of mNSP was suggested in whole brain of WSP mice, but not in WSR mice, by Northern blot analysis. One transcript (3.0 kb) suggests a 26% increase in relative abundance in whole brain of ethanol-exposed WSP mice, while there was no effect of ethanol on abundance of the 1.4-kb transcript in WSP mice. No effects of ethanol were observed for WSR mice. These preliminary findings suggest that mNSP represents a novel ethanol-induced gene in mice selected for genetic susceptibility to severe ethanol withdrawal.

Transcriptional up-regulation of the human androgen receptor by androgen in bone cells.

Androgen regulation of androgen receptor (AR) expression has been observed in a variety of tissues, generally as inhibition, and is thought to attenuate cellular responses to androgen. AR is expressed in osteoblasts, the bone-forming cell, suggesting direct actions of androgens on bone. Here we characterized the effect of androgen exposure on AR gene expression in human osteoblastic SaOS-2 and U-2 OS cells. Treatment of osteoblastic cells with the nonaromatizable androgen 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone increased AR steady state messenger RNA levels in a time- and dose-dependent fashion. Reporter assays with 2.3 kilobases of the proximal 5'-flanking region of the human AR promoter linked to the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase gene in transfected cultures showed that up-regulation of AR promoter activity by androgen was time and dose dependent. Treatment with other steroid hormones, including progesterone, 17beta-estradiol, and dexamethasone, was without effect. The antiandrogen hydroxyflutamide completely antagonized androgen up-regulation. Thus, in contrast to many other androgen target tissues, androgen exposure increases steady state AR messenger RNA levels in osteoblasts. This regulation occurs at least partially at the level of transcription, is mediated by the 5'-promoter region of the AR gene, and is dependent on functional AR. These results suggest that physiological concentrations of androgens have significant effects on AR expression in skeletal tissue.

Changes in IGF-I and -II expression and secretion during the proliferation and differentiation of normal rat osteoblasts.

IGF-I and -II have potent effects on proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts in vitro. These cells secrete both IGFs and expression of these peptides is regulated by several of the hormones and growth factors that promote bone resorption and/or formation. However, the physiological role(s) of IGFs in the remodelling process of adult bone is still unclear. Some confusion may arise from results influenced, in part, by differences in the state of osteoblast development of in vitro cultures. Several laboratories have demonstrated that murine osteoblast cultures progress from proliferating preosteoblasts, to mature differentiated osteoblasts that form an extracellular matrix, to cultures that form a mineralized matrix. We have recently documented changes in IGF-binding protein expression and secretion in these cultures. To complement and extend this work, we have examined IGF-I expression and secretion and IGF-II expression during in vitro osteoblast development. Steady-state mRNA levels of both IGF-I and -II increased from the earliest time examined, day 5 in culture, to a maximum at day 11 and, thereafter, declined. IGF-I secreted into the medium also changed in a biphasic manner, but IGF-II could not be quantitated due to the sensitivity of our assay. Secretion of IGF-I was lowest between days 8 and 14. IGF-I secretion on day 5 was significantly greater than day 8. Similarly, IGF-1 secretion from day 17 to 26 was also greater than observed for days 8 to 14. If differentiation of the cells was inhibited, this late rise in IGF-I secretion was abolished.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Changes in insulin-like growth factor-binding protein expression and secretion during the proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization of primary cultures of rat osteoblasts.

Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and IGF-II are secreted by the bone-forming osteoblast and have been shown to promote mitogenesis and/or differentiation of several of the cells involved in adult bone remodeling. The biological actions of the IGFs are modulated in a cell-specific manner by IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs). All six IGFBPs are expressed by osteoblasts. Both in vitro and in vivo, osteoblasts progress through a developmental sequence from committed precursors to mature differentiated cells that form a mineralized extracellular matrix. We have examined IGFBP expression and secretion by rat calvarial cultures, a model system of osteoblast development, to correlate changes with the developmental stage. Differential expression and secretion of IGFBPs during osteoblast development were observed. Maximal IGFBP-2 and -5 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression occurred in proliferating preosteoblasts, whereas mature osteoblasts showed maximal expression of IGFBP-3, -4, and -6. Rat osteoblasts did not express IGFBP-1. Increases in IGFBP-2, -3, and -4 secretion lagged behind corresponding mRNA increases by 3-6 days. Whereas mRNA levels declined as the cultures mineralized, IGFBP secretion continued to increase. Inhibition of osteoblast proliferation, which promotes differentiation, resulted in an IGFBP secretory pattern that was consistent with that seen with mature cells. Conversely, an IGFBP secretion pattern characteristic of proliferating cells could be maintained for weeks if differentiation was inhibited. We conclude that the developmental stage of the osteoblast is an important determinant of IGFBP secretion. We propose that hormonal regulation that alters the developmental stage may secondarily affect IGFBP expression or secretion.

Regulation of osteoblastic gene expression by lead.

Although it is well recognized that lead accumulates in bone, skeletal tissue is considered primarily a sequestering compartment and not a site of toxic action for lead. However, exposure to lead is associated with impaired skeletal growth in children and reductions in indices of bone formation in laboratory animals. Osteoblastic ROS 17/2.8 cells were used in an effort to better understand the consequences of lead exposure on skeletal homeostasis. Studies on confluent cultures of ROS 17/2.8 cells revealed that lead (2-200 microM) had no effect on cell number or DNA and protein synthesis. However, alkaline phosphatase activity was reduced by lead in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Reductions in steady state alkaline phosphatase mRNA levels paralleled the lead-induced inhibition of enzyme activity. Moreover, lead exposure resulted in similar dose-dependent reductions in steady state type 1 procollagen and bone Gla protein mRNA levels. The effect of lead on osteoblastic gene expression in ROS 17/2.8 cultures, however, was selective in nature, as similar lead exposures resulted in no alterations in beta-actin or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase mRNA levels. These data demonstrate that lead, in the absence of over toxicity, specifically restricts the expression of certain aspects of the differentiated osteoblast phenotype. Such alterations in osteoblast function may contribute to the skeletal abnormalities observed in settings of lead intoxication.

Functional cloning vectors for use in directional cDNA cloning using cohesive ends produced with T4 DNA polymerase.

This paper describes the construction of 'Prime' cloning vectors, which include phage lambda and plasmid vectors useful for functional cloning in oocytes, yeast, and mammalian cells, and their use in a 'Prime' cloning system. The system takes advantage of the very active and precise 3' exonuclease activity of T4 DNA polymerase to produce single-stranded (ss) ends (cut-back) of vector and insert DNA. This results in the highly efficient directional cloning of cDNA and PCR-amplified DNA. The system obviates the need to digest insert DNA with a restriction endonuclease to unveil cloning sites, and thus eliminates the chance of internal digestion of the insert DNA. The cloning of PCR-amplified DNA, which is sometimes difficult, is made routine with this system. The 'Prime' sequence is included in vector cloning sites and cDNA and PCR primers. The 'Prime' sequence was chosen so that the ss sticky ends are nonpalindromic and will hybridize only to the appropriate partners. This makes cloning with the 'Prime' system very efficient, because neither the vector nor insert DNA is lost to unproductive self-hybridization.

Interaction of nascent preproparathyroid hormone molecules with microsomal membranes.

To characterize the early steps in the interaction of nascent chains of preproparathyroid hormone (prepro-PTH) with the secretory apparatus, such truncated nascent chains still attached to ribosomes were tested for binding to microsomal membranes and cleavage by signal peptidase. Nascent chains of 114, 97, 88, 81, 70, and 59 residues were tested for their ability to bind tightly to membranes and to undergo signal sequence cleavage. Chains of 81 residues and longer bound tightly to the membranes and were cleaved by signal peptidase. The 88- and 81-residue precursors and their corresponding pro-proteins were less efficiently associated with the membranes than were the 114- and 97-residue precursors and their corresponding pro-proteins. The 70-residue chain bound to the membrane but was not cleaved. When this peptide was subsequently released from the ribosome with puromycin, it was cleaved by signal peptidase. The 59-residue chain bound only slightly to the microsomal membrane and was not cleaved by signal peptidase, even when the nascent peptide was released from the ribosome with puromycin. Thus the critical length for productive binding to microsomal membranes is between 59 and 70 residues; the length required for signal cleavage is between 70 and 81 residues.

Effects of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) on human prostatic carcinoma.

The purpose of this study was to determine what effects sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) might have on the growth and steroid content of human prostate carcinoma. Two human prostate carcinoma cell lines were used for this study, ALVA-41 and ALVA-101. The first part of the study was to determine the effect of SHBG or albumin on the uptake of [3H]DHT in the cells. In this experiment both SHBG and albumin inhibits the uptake of [3H]DHT into each of the cell lines when studied in vitro. The degree of inhibition was dependent on the binding capacity of the protein. When [3H]thymidine uptake was measured in each of the cell lines following either the addition of SHBG or albumin to the culture media, an increase in uptake and presumably DNA synthesis was noted in the ALVA-41 and ALVA-101 cells for SHBG additions but not for albumin. Further, this stimulation was increased when testosterone was added to the media, however, [3H]thymidine uptake was decreased by high concentrations of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) or if the SHBG was saturated with DHT prior to being added to the media. The cells also demonstrate high affinity cell membrane receptors for SHBG. Finally, using a 3', 550 bp cDNA or SHBG, 1.9 and 2.8 kb mRNAs were detected on Northern analysis of the ALVA-101 and ALVA-41 cells. These data indicate SHBG can inhibit uptake of steroids into the prostate, but also it may act as a stimulus for growth through a SHBG cell surface receptor. In addition, the growth effect may be through an autocrine effect from SHBG or a SHBG-related peptide.

Mutations in signal sequence cleavage domain of preproparathyroid hormone alter protein translocation, signal sequence cleavage, and membrane-binding properties.

Signal sequences, known to mediate the targeting of nascent secreted proteins to membranes, share common structural domains: a positively charged amino-terminus, a hydrophobic core, and a signal cleavage domain. Mutations have been introduced into the cDNA encoding the signal sequence of the mammalian protein preproparathyroid hormone to analyze the roles played by the signal cleavage domain in secretion. Two mutant genes were constructed missing the entire six-residue propeptide sequence and several residues of the signal cleavage domain. The effects of these mutations on signal function were assessed after expression in clonal cell lines and in a transcription-linked translation system. Alterations in the signal cleavage domain resulted in reduced translocation and signal cleavage. Furthermore, in one mutant, the removal of the signal cleavage domain converted the signal into a membrane anchor sequence. The nonhydrophobic sequences at the end of the signal sequence thus crucially affect the translocation, cleavage, and membrane-binding properties of signal sequences.

Importance of the propeptide sequence of human preproparathyroid hormone for signal sequence function.

The function of amino-terminal pro-specific peptides (propeptides), sequences often found on intermediate precursor forms of secreted proteins, is poorly understood. Human preproparathyroid hormone (prepro-PTH), a precursor protein containing such a propeptide, is initially synthesized as a precursor containing a 25-amino acid signal sequence, a 6-amino acid propeptide, and the 84-amino acid mature secreted peptide. Cloned cDNA encoding prepro-PTH and synthetic oligonucleotides were used to generate a mutant missing precisely the pro-specific sequences. The effects of this deletion on signal sequence function and on secretion per se were assessed after expression of the mutant cDNA in intact cells and in a cell-free translation system using synthetic mRNA in the presence of microsomal membranes. The mutant precursor protein was inefficiently translocated and cleaved, and cleavage occurred both at the normal site and within the signal sequence. Thus, for the eukaryotic protein prepro-PTH, sequences immediately downstream and separate from the classically defined signal sequence facilitate accurate and efficient signal function.