Awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension among women at risk or living with HIV in the US South: a prospective study.

OBJECTIVES: Timely control of hypertension is vital to prevent comorbidities. We evaluated the association of race/ethnicity and HIV infection with incident hypertension outcomes, including awareness, treatment, and control. DESIGN: We evaluated cisgender women living with HIV and sociodemographically matched women living without HIV recruited into four Southern sites of the Women's Interagency HIV Study (2013-2019). METHODS: We calculated measurements of the time to four events or censoring: incident hypertension, hypertension awareness, hypertension treatment, and hypertension control. Hazard ratios for race/ethnicity and HIV status were calculated for each outcome using Cox proportional-hazards models adjusted for sociodemographic, behavioral, and clinical risk factors. RESULTS: Among 712 women, 56% were hypertensive at baseline. Forty-five percent of the remaining women who were normotensive at baseline developed incident hypertension during follow-up. Non-Hispanic White and Hispanic women had faster time to hypertension control compared to non-Hispanic Black women (p = 0.01). In fully adjusted models, women living with HIV who were normotensive at baseline had faster time to treatment compared to normotensive women living without HIV (p = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: In our study of women in the US South, non-Hispanic Black women became aware of their hypertension diagnosis more quickly than non-Hispanic White and Hispanic women but were slower to control their hypertension. Additionally, women living with HIV more quickly treated and controlled their hypertension compared to women living without HIV.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Social Cognition Among People Living with HIV: Implications for Non-Social Cognition and Social Everyday Functioning.

Social cognition-the complex mental ability to perceive social stimuli and negotiate the social environment-has emerged as an important cognitive ability needed for social functioning, everyday functioning, and quality of life. Deficits in social cognition have been well documented in those with severe mental illness including schizophrenia and depression, those along the autism spectrum, and those with other brain disorders where such deficits profoundly impact everyday life. Moreover, subtle deficits in social cognition have been observed in other clinical populations, especially those that may have compromised non-social cognition (i.e., fluid intelligence such as memory). Among people living with HIV (PLHIV), 44% experience cognitive impairment; likewise, social cognitive deficits in theory of mind, prosody, empathy, and emotional face recognition/perception are gradually being recognized. This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to summarize the current knowledge of social cognitive ability among PLHIV, identified by 14 studies focused on social cognition among PLHIV, and provides an objective consensus of the findings. In general, the literature suggests that PLHIV may be at-risk of developing subtle social cognitive deficits that may impact their everyday social functioning and quality of life. The causes of such social cognitive deficits remain unclear, but perhaps develop due to (1) HIV-related sequelae that are damaging the same neurological systems in which social cognition and non-social cognition are processed; (2) stress related to coping with HIV disease itself that overwhelms one's social cognitive resources; or (3) may have been present pre-morbidly, possibly contributing to an HIV infection. From this, a theoretical framework is proposed highlighting the relationships between social cognition, non-social cognition, and social everyday functioning.

Perceptions of and preferences for PrEP use among African American women and providers in the U.S. South: a qualitative study.

OBJECTIVE: African American (AA) women in the U.S. South experience significant HIV incidence, and efforts to support antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) uptake and maintenance among this group have been insufficient. This study aimed to explore perceptions, attitudes, and implementation preferences surrounding PrEP use for AA women in the U.S. South. METHODS AND MEASURES: The study team conducted qualitative interviews with AA cisgender women clients (n = 21) and their providers (n = 20) in Federally Qualified Health Centers and HIV clinics in Alabama. The research team employed directed qualitative content analysis to analyze interview data. RESULTS: Five themes emerged: a) inconsistent access to PrEP and PrEP knowledge, b) need for improving low PrEP awareness, c) managing hesitancy to prescribe or use PrEP, d) perceived HIV vulnerability and inherent stigma, and e) normalizing PrEP as part of routine sexual healthcare to increase uptake and maintenance. Interviews revealed an openness towards PrEP as an HIV prevention strategy for AA, cisgender women in Alabama. CONCLUSION: Improving PrEP uptake and maintenance among AA women in the U.S. South must go beyond increasing awareness to improving PrEP access and trust through visibility of AA women's PrEP use and incorporating PrEP education and services into routine sexual healthcare.

Disparities in Hypertension Prevalence, Awareness, Treatment, and Control Among Women Living With and Without HIV in the US South.

Background: Hypertension-related diseases are major causes of morbidity among women living with HIV. We evaluated cross-sectional associations of race/ethnicity and HIV infection with hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control. Methods: Among women recruited into Southern sites of the Women's Interagency HIV Study (2013-2015), hypertension was defined as (1) systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg according to clinical guidelines when data were collected, (2) self-report of hypertension, or (3) use of antihypertensive medication. Awareness was defined as self-report of hypertension, and treatment was self-report of any antihypertensive medication use. Blood pressure control was defined as <140/90 mm Hg at baseline. Prevalence ratios for each hypertension outcome were estimated through Poisson regression models with robust variance estimators adjusted for sociodemographic, behavioral, and clinical risk factors. Results: Among 712 women, 56% had hypertension and 83% were aware of their diagnosis. Of those aware, 83% were using antihypertensive medication, and 63% of those treated had controlled hypertension. In adjusted analyses, non-Hispanic White and Hispanic women had 31% and 48% lower prevalence of hypertension than non-Hispanic Black women, respectively. Women living with HIV who had hypertension were 19% (P = .04) more likely to be taking antihypertension medication when compared with women living without HIV. Conclusions: In this study population of women living with and without HIV in the US South, the prevalence of hypertension was lowest among Hispanic women and highest among non-Hispanic Black women. Despite similar hypertension prevalence, women living with HIV were more likely to be taking antihypertensive medication when compared with women living without HIV.

Life course history of physical and sexual abuse is associated with cardiovascular disease risk among women living with and without HIV.

OBJECTIVE: Sexual and physical abuse predict cardiovascular disease (CVD) among women in the general population. Women living with HIV (WLWH) report more abuse and have higher CVD risk compared with other women, yet associations between abuse history and CVD have not been considered among WLWH. This study fills this gap, and describes possible pathways linking abuse to CVD risk among WLWH and women living without HIV (WLWOH). METHODS: Using 25 years of data from the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS; n  = 2734; WLWH n  = 1963; WLWOH n  = 771), we used longitudinal generalized estimating equations (GEE) to test associations between sexual and physical abuse with CVD risk. Framingham (FRS-H) and the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association-Pooled Cohort Equation (ACC/AHA-PCE) scores were examined. Analyses were stratified by HIV-serostatus. RESULTS: Among WLWH, childhood sexual abuse was associated with higher CVD risk ( ßFRS-H  = 1.25, SE = 1.08, P  = 0.005; ßACC/AHA-PCE  = 1.14, SE = 1.07, P  = 0.04) compared with no abuse. Adulthood sexual abuse was associated with higher CVD risk for WLWH ( ßFRS-H  = 1.39, SE = 1.08, P  < 0.0001) and WLWOH ( ßFRS-H  = 1.58, SE = 1.14, P  = 0.0006). Childhood physical abuse was not associated with CVD risk for either group. Adulthood physical abuse was associated with CVD risk for WLWH ( ßFRS-H  = 1.44, SE = 1.07; P  < 0.0001, ßACC/AHA-PCE  = 1.18, SE = 1.06, P  = 0.002) and WLWOH ( ßFRS-H  = 1.68, SE = 1.12, P  < 0.0001; ßACC/AHA-PCE  = 1.24, SE = 1.11, P  = 0.03). Several pathway factors were significant, including depression, smoking, and hepatitis C infection. CONCLUSION: Life course abuse may increase CVD risk among WLWH and women at high risk of acquiring HIV. Some comorbidities help explain the associations. Assessing abuse experiences in clinical encounters may help contextualize cardiovascular risk among this vulnerable population and inform intervention.

Psychosocial Syndemic Classes and Longitudinal Transition Patterns Among Sexual Minority men Living with or Without HIV in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS).

Mental health and substance use epidemics interact to create psychosocial syndemics, accelerating poor health outcomes. Using latent class and latent transition analyses, we identified psychosocial syndemic phenotypes and their longitudinal transition pathways among sexual minority men (SMM) in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS, n = 3,384, mean age 44, 29% non-Hispanic Black, 51% with HIV). Self-reported depressive symptoms and substance use indices (i.e., smoking, hazardous drinking, marijuana, stimulant, and popper use) at the index visit, 3-year and 6-year follow-up were used to model psychosocial syndemics. Four latent classes were identified: "poly-behavioral" (19.4%), "smoking and depression" (21.7%), "illicit drug use" (13.8%), and "no conditions" (45.1%). Across all classes, over 80% of SMM remained in that same class over the follow-ups. SMM who experienced certain psychosocial clusters (e.g., illicit drug use) were less likely to transition to a less complex class. These people could benefit from targeted public health intervention and greater access to treatment resources.

Syndemic trajectories of heavy drinking, smoking, and depressive symptoms are associated with mortality in women living with HIV in the United States from 1994 to 2017.

BACKGROUND: Heavy drinking, smoking, and depression are common among people with HIV. Little is known about the co-occurring, synergistic effect of having two or more of these conditions long-term -a sustained syndemic - on mortality among women with HIV (WWH). METHODS: Data from 3282 WWH of the Women's Interagency HIV Study from 1994 to 2017 were utilized. National Death Index review identified cause of death (n=616). Sustained syndemic phenotypes were based on membership in high-risk groups defined by group-based trajectory models of repeated self-reported alcohol use, smoking, and depressive symptoms and their co-occurrence. Cox proportional hazard models estimated associations of sustained syndemic phenotypes with all-cause, non-AIDS, and non-overdose mortality, adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, education, enrollment wave, illicit drug use, and time-varying HIV viral load and CD4+ T-cell count. RESULTS: WWH were 58% Black and 26% Hispanic, with a mean baseline age of 36.7 years. Syndemic phenotypes included zero (45%, n=1463), heavy drinking only (1%, n=35), smoking only (28%, n=928), depressive symptoms only (9%, n=282), and 2+ trajectories (17%, n=574). Compared to zero trajectories, having 2+ trajectories was associated with 3.93 times greater all-cause mortality risk (95% CI 3.07, 5.04) after controlling for confounders and each high-risk trajectory alone. These findings persisted in sensitivity analyses, removing AIDS- and overdose-related mortalities. CONCLUSIONS: Clustering of 2+ conditions of heavy drinking, smoking, and depression affected nearly one in five WWH and was associated with higher mortality than zero or one condition. Our findings underscore the need for coordinated screening and parsimonious treatment strategies for these co-occurring conditions.

Sex differences in incident atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease events among women and men with HIV.

BACKGROUND: The protective advantage against atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) experienced by women compared to men in the general population is diminished in some high- risk populations. People with HIV have a higher risk for ASCVD compared to the general population. OBJECTIVE: Compare the incidence of ASCVD among women versus men with HIV. METHODS: We analyzed data from women ( n  = 17 118) versus men ( n  = 88 840) with HIV, and women ( n  = 68 472) and men ( n  = 355 360) matched on age, sex, and calendar year of enrollment without HIV who had commercial health insurance in the MarketScan database between 2011 and 2019. ASCVD events during follow-up, including myocardial infarction, stroke, and lower-extremity artery disease, were identified using validated claims-based algorithms. RESULTS: Among those with and without HIV, the majority of women (81.7%) and men (83.6%) were <55 years old. Over a mean follow-up of 2.25-2.36 years depending on sex-HIV sub-group, the ASCVD incidence rate per 1000 person-years was 2.87 [95% confidence interval (CI) 2.35, 3.40] and 3.61 (3.35, 3.88) among women and men with HIV, respectively, and 1.24 (1.07, 1.42) and 2.57 (2.46, 2.67) among women and men without HIV, respectively. After multivariable adjustment, the hazard ratio for ASCVD comparing women to men was 0.70 (95% CI 0.58, 0.86) among those with HIV and 0.47 (0.40, 0.54) among those without HIV ( P -interaction = 0.001). CONCLUSION: The protective advantage of female sex against ASCVD observed in the general population is diminished among women with HIV. Earlier and more intensive treatment strategies are needed to reduce sex-based disparities.

Socioeconomic, Psychosocial, and Clinical Factors Associated With Employment in Women With HIV in the United States: A Correlational Study.

ABSTRACT: Employment is a social determinant of health, and women living with HIV (WLWH) are often underemployed. This correlational study examined the socioeconomic, psychosocial, and clinical factors associated with employment among WLWH (n = 1,357) and women at risk for HIV (n = 560). Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to evaluate factors associated with employment status. Employment was associated (p ≤ .05) with better socioeconomic status and quality of life (QOL), less tobacco and substance use, and better physical, psychological, and cognitive health. Among WLWH, employment was associated (p ≤ .05) with improved adherence to HIV care visits and HIV RNA viral suppression. Using multivariable regression modeling, differences were found between WLWH and women at risk for HIV. Among WLWH, household income, QOL, education, and time providing childcare remained associated with employment in adjusted multivariable analyses (R2 = .272, p < .001). A better understanding of the psychosocial and structural factors affecting employment is needed to reduce occupational disparities among WLWH.

Employment and Occupational Productivity Among Women Living With HIV: A Conceptual Framework.

ABSTRACT: Women living with HIV (WLWH) have lower employment rates and more difficulty finding and keeping employment compared with their counterparts without HIV. These disparities affect physical, psychological, and socioeconomic outcomes, and they may compound the disadvantages associated with living with HIV. Although historical literature has emphasized the impact of clinical factors on employment, current evidence suggests that socioeconomic and psychosocial factors associated with HIV should be included for a more comprehensive view. Based on this broader inclusion, a conceptual framework is presented describing how socioeconomic and psychosocial characteristics influence employment acquisition and maintenance among WLWH. The framework posits that there is a reciprocal relationship between employment acquisition and occupational productivity, and psychological health, physical health, social support, and empowerment. Implications for future research and interventions include (a) an extended conceptualization of vocational rehabilitation and (b) the use of peer support groups to increase social capital, empowerment, knowledge, and resources among WLWH.

Mindfulness, sleep, and post-traumatic stress in long-haul truck drivers.

BACKGROUND: The high stress culture and demands associated with long-haul truck driving place truckers at risk for mental health and sleep disorders, and thereby, increased risk for accidents, injuries, and fatality. Hours-of-service regulations have proven insufficient as a stand-alone intervention to protect the welfare of long-haul truckers, impacting those working in the industry and those sharing our nation's roads. Interventions to increase mindfulness have been used across occupational and personal domains to improve sleep quality, mental health, awareness of the environment, and reaction time. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between sleep, mental health, health care utilization, and mindfulness in long-haul truck drivers in the United States. METHODS: Participants (N = 140) were recruited to complete a web-based survey. Descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, and regression analysis were used to examine variables of interest. RESULTS: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptomology and daytime sleepiness predicted mental health care utilization in the past year. Mindfulness was inversely correlated with PTSD symptomology, however in the full regression model, mindfulness failed to predict mental health care utilization. CONCLUSIONS: Occupational health professionals should utilize mindfulness screenings as an adjunctive component to traditional mental health screenings and refer drivers for advanced care as appropriate.

Barriers to HIV Testing: Patient and Provider Perspectives in the Deep South.

Although CDC guidelines call for universal, "opt-out" HIV testing, barriers to testing continue to exist throughout the United States, with the rural South particularly vulnerable to both HIV infection and decreased awareness of status. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to evaluate uptake of "opt-out" HIV testing and barriers to testing within the primary care setting in the South. A concurrent triangulation design guided the collection of quantitative data from patients (N = 250) and qualitative data from providers (N = 10) across three primary health clinics in Alabama. We found that 30% of patients had never been tested for HIV, with the highest ranked barrier among patients being perceived costs, access to specialty care, and not feeling at risk. Significant differences existed in perceived barriers between patients and providers. Increased provider-patient engagement and the routine implementation of "opt-out" HIV testing would effectively reveal and mitigate barriers to testing, thus, increasing awareness of status.

Fatigue in Long-Haul Truck Drivers: A Concept Analysis.

The majority of long-haul truck drivers are affected by fatigue. Notably, fatigue impacts not only quality of life, but the risk for human error, thus impacting the safety of our nation's roads. In 2015, 400,000 trucking accidents occurred with the top driver impairment identified as being "asleep or fatigued." Yet, the current scientific literature reflects different understandings of the concept of fatigue, hindering synchronized measurement and efforts toward its alleviation. The purpose of this work was to analyze the concept of fatigue in long-haul truck drivers using the Rodgers' evolutionary method. The physical, cognitive, and emotional dimensions of fatigue are presented.

Hepatitis C care cascade among persons born 1945-1965: 3 medical centers.

OBJECTIVES: Effective screening, diagnosis, and treatment are needed to reduce chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection-associated morbidity and mortality. In order to successfully increase HCV treatment, it is necessary to identify and understand gaps in linkage of antibody-positive patients with newly identified HCV to subsequent HCV RNA testing, clinical evaluation, and treatment. STUDY DESIGN: To estimate attainment of HCV care cascade steps among antibody-positive patients with newly identified HCV, we conducted chart reviews of patients with a new positive HCV antibody test at 3 academic medical centers participating in the Birth-Cohort Evaluation to Advance Screening and Testing of Hepatitis C (BEST-C) study. METHODS: We tracked receipt of RNA testing, clinical evaluation, treatment initiation, and treatment completion among individuals born between 1945 and 1965 who were newly diagnosed as HCV antibody-positive between December 2012 and October 2015 at 3 BEST-C centers, predominantly from the participating medical centers' primary care practices and emergency departments. RESULTS: Of the 130 HCV-seropositive individuals identified, 118 (91%) had an RNA or genotype test, 75 (58%) were RNA-positive, 73 (56%) were linked to care, 22 (17% overall; 29% among RNA-positive) started treatment, and 21 (16%; 28% among RNA-positive) completed treatment. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis showed that although linkage to care was largely successful in the target birth cohort, the largest gap in the HCV care cascade was seen in initiating treatment. Greater emphasis on linking patients to clinical evaluation and treatment is necessary in order to achieve the public health benefits promised by birth-cohort testing.

Universal Screening for HIV and Hepatitis C Infection: A Community-Based Pilot Project.

INTRODUCTION: Black men in the Deep South have been disproportionally affected by high HIV and hepatitis C virus infection rates. Conventional clinic-based screening approaches have had limited success in reaching those with undiagnosed HIV or hepatitis C virus infection. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the acceptability, feasibility, and best practices of an integrated HIV and hepatitis C virus community-based health screening approach. METHODS: The study used a mixed methods approach: focus group discussion, individual interviews, and surveys that assessed perceptions, perspectives, and HIV and hepatitis C virus awareness among six communities across Alabama and Mississippi. Data were collected and analyzed in 2014-2017. RESULTS: Although HIV and hepatitis C virus knowledge was limited among community members surveyed, the results of this study suggest that (1) using an integrated, community-based HIV and hepatitis C virus testing approach is acceptable and feasible; (2) formation of a community advisory board is a key element of successful community mobilization; (3) education and training of community members on disease-specific topics and overcoming stigma are essential; and (4) focus on and inclusion of young community members will be critical for the sustainability of screening efforts. CONCLUSIONS: Including and engaging communities at risk for HIV and hepatitis C virus infection in prevention research is a promising strategy to overcome existing barriers of stigma and discrimination. Integration of HIV and hepatitis C virus testing in universal health screening efforts utilizing a Community Health Advisors model encourages unbiased communication with a focus on overall community health. Community health advisors are recognized as important agents in this effort. SUPPLEMENT INFORMATION: This article is part of a supplement entitled African American Men's Health: Research, Practice, and Policy Implications, which is sponsored by the National Institutes of Health.