'With or without you': associations between noteworthy events and cognitive complaints across 100 days.

OBJECTIVES: Daily noteworthy events have implications for physical and mental health, but less is known about the role daily events have for self-reported cognition and whether the involvement of close social partners differentiates these associations. The current study examined how daily positive and negative noteworthy events relate to subjective memory and attentional difficulties and whether close social partners moderated associations. METHOD: We used data from a 100-day microlongitudinal web-based study of 104 older adults (Nobservations=7,051; Mage=63.13 years, SDage=7.81, 88.46% Female). Participants reported on exposure to and valence of noteworthy events, involvement of close social partners, and subjective cognitive complaints at the end of each day. RESULTS: Logistic multilevel models revealed that days with a negative event were associated with increased odds of forgetting something and trouble concentrating whereas days with positive events were associated with decreased odds of trouble concentrating. Close social partner involvement did not moderate within-person associations. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that day-to-day events are correlates of cognitive complaints regardless of close social partner involvement in the events. Research should clarify the role of daily positive and negative events in personalized interventions and determine whether this person-centered approach to self-reported cognitive health helps inform diagnostic practices.

Racial differences in links between perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, and ambulatory working memory.

OBJECTIVES: Perceived discrimination is associated with racial cognitive health disparities. Links between discrimination and cognitive performance, like working memory, in everyday settings (i.e. ambulatory performance) require investigation. Depressive symptoms may be a mechanism through which discrimination relates to ambulatory working memory. METHOD: Discrimination, retrospective and momentary depressive symptoms/mood, and aggregated and momentary working memory performance among older Black and White adults were examined within the Einstein Aging Study. RESULTS: Racially stratified analyses revealed that discrimination did not relate to Black or White adults' ambulatory working memory. Among Black adults, however, more frequent discrimination was associated with greater retrospectively reported depressive symptoms, which related to more working memory errors across two weeks (indirect effect p < 0.05). This path was not significant among White adults. Links between discrimination and momentary working memory were not explained by momentary reports of depressed mood for Black or White adults. CONCLUSION: Depressive symptoms may play an important role in the link between discrimination and ambulatory working memory among Black adults across extended measurements, but not at the momentary level. Future research should address ambulatory cognition and momentary reports of discrimination and depression to better understand how to minimize cognitive health disparities associated with discrimination.

Loneliness dynamics and physical health symptomology among midlife adults in daily life.

OBJECTIVE: The current study examined how average daily loneliness (between-persons [BPs]), intraindividual variability in loneliness across days (within-persons [WPs]), and loneliness stability informed physical health symptomatology. METHOD: We utilized daily diary data from a national sample of 1,538 middle-aged adults (Mage = 51.02; 57.61% women) who completed eight end-of-day telephone interviews about daily experiences, including loneliness and physical health symptoms (e.g., headaches, nausea). Via multilevel modeling, we examined average daily loneliness (BPs), intraindividual variability in loneliness (WPs), stability in loneliness (individual mean-squared successive difference) in association with the number and average severity of daily physical health symptoms. RESULTS: When participants were less lonely on average, and on days when loneliness was lower than a person's average, they had fewer and less severe physical health symptoms. Additionally, participants who were more stable in loneliness across 8 days had less severe physical health symptoms. Further, there was a stronger association between instability in loneliness and more physical health symptoms for people who were lonelier on average. Finally, the increase in physical health symptom severity associated with WP loneliness was strongest for participants with low variability in loneliness. CONCLUSION: Loneliness is associated with physical health symptoms on a day-to-day basis, especially for people who are highly variable in loneliness. Considerations of multiple sources of variation in daily loneliness may be necessary to adequately address loneliness and promote health. Public health interventions addressing loneliness may be most effective if they support social connectedness in people's everyday lives in ways that promote stable, low levels of loneliness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Preserving What Matters: Longitudinal Changes in Control Over Interpersonal Stress and Noninterpersonal Stress in Daily Life.

OBJECTIVES: Theoretical perspectives on aging suggest that when people experience declines in later life, they often selectively focus on maintaining aspects of their lives that are most meaningful and important to them. The social domain is one of these selected areas. The current study examines people's reports of control over their daily stressors over 10 years, predicting that the declines in control that are often observed in later life will not be observed for stressors involving interpersonal conflict and tensions with social partners. METHODS: Adults ranging from 35 to 86 years old at baseline (N = 1,940), from the National Study of Daily Experiences, reported control over interpersonal and noninterpersonal daily stressors across 8 consecutive days at 2 time points, about 10 years apart. RESULTS: Findings from multilevel models indicate that for noninterpersonal stressors, perceived control decreased over time. In contrast, perceived control over interpersonal conflicts and tensions remained robust over time. No cross-sectional baseline age differences were found for levels of interpersonal and noninterpersonal stressor control. DISCUSSION: Results are consistent with socioemotional selectivity and underscore the importance of interpersonal relationships in later adulthood. Understanding how people select and preserve certain aspects of control in their daily life can help guide efforts toward maximizing gains and minimizing losses in domains that matter most to people as they grow older.

Cohort Differences in PTSD Symptoms and Military Experiences: A Life Course Perspective.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: There have been major changes in military service over the past 50 years. Most research on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among combat Veterans comes from help-seeking Vietnam and WWII cohorts; results from more recent cohort comparisons are mixed. The present study addressed these gaps by exploring cohort differences among Vietnam, Persian Gulf, and Post-9/11 combat Veterans from a life course perspective. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We recruited community-dwelling combat and war zone Veterans (N = 167), primarily from Veterans' associations in Oregon from three cohorts: Vietnam, Persian Gulf, and Post-911. Online surveys assessed current PTSD symptoms, life course (demographics and cohort membership), and experiential variables (combat severity, appraisals of military service, homecoming, and social support). RESULTS: Cohorts were comparable in demographics and war experiences. Step one of a hierarchical regression found that PTSD symptoms were higher among Veterans of color and those with lower incomes, R2 = 0.37, p < .001. When cohort was added, Vietnam Veterans had higher symptoms than Post-9/11; income and race/ethnicity remained significant, ΔR2 = 0.01, p = .13. The final model added experiential variables, ΔR2 = 0.38, p < .001; cohort and income were no longer significant, although Veterans of color still reported higher symptoms. Those with more undesirable service appraisals and who sought social support had higher symptoms, while desirable appraisals were protective. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: From a life course perspective, the particular war zone that Veterans served in was less important than demographics and both service and postservice experiences, suggesting generalizability of risk and protective factors, as well as treatment modalities, across cohorts.

Affective Reactions to daily interpersonal stressors: Moderation by family involvement and gender.

The goal of this study was to examine whether family involvement and gender moderated daily changes in affect associated with interpersonal stressors. Adults (N = 2022; M age = 56.25, Median = 56, SD = 12.20, Range = 33-84) from the second wave of the National Study of Daily Experiences participated in eight consecutive daily diaries. Each day they reported whether a daily interpersonal stressor occurred, whether family was involved, and their positive and negative affect. Results from multilevel models indicated that family involvement did not significantly moderate daily interpersonal stressor-affect associations; however, gender was a significant moderator in some instances. Women showed greater increases in negative affective reactivity to arguments and avoided arguments compared to men. Further, compared to men, women reported larger decreases in positive affective reactivity, but only for avoided arguments. Neither family involvement, gender, nor the interaction between family involvement and gender predicted affective residue. Gender differences in daily interpersonal stressors and affective reactivity may be attributable to overarching gender norms and roles that are still salient in the U.S. Our results suggest that daily interpersonal stressors may be detrimental to affective well-being, regardless of family involvement. Future work should explore associations between daily interpersonal stressors and family involvement by specific relationship roles, such as mother or spouse, for a more comprehensive understanding of what stressor characteristics impact daily affective well-being.

Adaptation to changes in COVID-19 pandemic severity: Across older adulthood and time scales.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been observed to negatively affect older adults' psychological health compared with prepandemic levels. However, older adults' coping efficacy may differ depending on their age, and little is known about effects of fluctuations in pandemic severity. Two longitudinal studies tested the hypothesis that pandemic severity would affect psychological health and be moderated by age. In Study 1 (N = 111), older adults (aged 62-96) were assessed semiannually before and after the first United States COVID-19 case over up to 10 years. Depressive symptoms and stress, but not cognitive difficulties, were higher during COVID-19; pandemic severity had little effect. Estimated increases were smaller for a 65-year-old than for an 85-year-old. In Study 2 (N = 221), older adults (aged 51-95) were assessed weekly over up to 8 weeks during the COVID-19 pandemic. Higher national pandemic severity was associated with more cognitive difficulties, more depressive symptoms, and more stress. In an opposite pattern from Study 1, estimated increases were larger for a 65-year-old than for an 85-year-old. Old-old adults might be most susceptible to long-term psychological effects of the pandemic era, as in Study 1, but more resilient to short-term effects, as in Study 2. Coping strategies associated with increasing age may be less efficacious for more chronic and severe problems. Conversely, the same coping strategies may be more efficacious for shorter, less severe problems. Differentiating between reactivity to longer term and shorter term pandemic stressors can identify the most resilient or vulnerable ages within older adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

How Do Marital Transitions Affect Self-Perceptions of Aging?

OBJECTIVES: We analyzed whether marital status and experiences of marital loss or gain were associated with self-perceptions of aging (SPA), a major psychosocial mechanism of healthy aging. METHOD: We used data from 7028 participants of the Health and Retirement Study. Participants reported their marital status and their positive and negative SPA on two occasions 4 years apart. We ran general linear models to analyze differences in SPA between men and women who remained married, became divorced or widowed, or remarried following divorce or widowhood. RESULTS: Participants who experienced marital loss had lower positive SPA than participants who remained marred. Participants who experienced marital gain had lower negative SPA than participants who remained married. None of the associations differed between men and women. DISCUSSION: Results suggest that it may not be marital status itself, but rather the transition into or out of marriage, that impacts how people appraise their own aging.

Daily Stress Processes as Potential Intervention Targets to Reduce Gender Differences and Improve Mental Health Outcomes in Mid- and Later Life.

The current study examines daily stress processes as risk factors for comprised mental health in midlife and later life, specifically for gender differences in depression risk. Using data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study and the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE), we examine (1) gender differences in depression; (2) the prospective effects of differential exposure and affective responses on 10-year depression status; (3) gender differences in daily stress-depression links. Furthermore, we explore whether the protective factor of help-seeking behavior moderates the effects of daily stress on depression. Participants included 1289 (mage = 55; SD = 12; range = 34-83; 56% female) individuals who completed the second waves of MIDUS and the 8-day NSDE daily diary protocol and participated in the third wave of MIDUS approximately 10 years later. Respondents completed assessments of depression and their seeking assistance from a psychiatrist, mental health professional, counselor, or religious leader. Covariate-adjusted logistic regression analyses revealed increased odds of depression among women compared to men, but no significant gender difference after taking daily stress into account. Higher levels of stressor exposure, negative affect, and affective reactivity were associated with increased odds of depression for both men and women. Compared to those who did not engage in help-seeking behavior, those who did had significantly greater odds of depression, and there were asymmetric patterns of daily stress effects across groups. These findings highlight differential exposure, negative affect, and affective responses to daily stress as potentially accessible intervention targets for reducing stress in daily life and mitigating longer-term depression risk during mid- and later life.

Self-Perceptions of Aging Moderate Associations of Within- and Between-Persons Perceived Stress and Physical Health Symptoms.

OBJECTIVES: To examine how self-perceptions of aging (SPA) moderated within- and between-persons perceived stress associations with physical health symptoms. METHODS: A community-dwelling sample of 103 adults (Meanage = 63, range = 52-88) participated in an online microlongitudinal study for 100 days (Noccasions = 7,064). Participants completed baseline surveys consisting of SPA, social connections, and demographics followed by 100 daily surveys including information about daily stress perceptions and physical health. Utilizing generalized multilevel models, we examined whether daily fluctuations and average levels of perceived stress over 100 days affected physical health symptoms and whether these associations varied by SPA. RESULTS: Adults who had higher perceived stress, on average across 100 days, reported significantly more physical health symptoms compared to individuals with lower perceived stress on average (p < .05). On days when individuals reported higher perceived stress than their own average, they had a higher likelihood of reporting more physical health symptoms compared to days when their perceived stress was lower than their own average (p < .05). Further, SPA significantly moderated associations between both within- and between-persons perceived stress and physical health symptoms (ps < .05). Individuals with more positive SPA were less affected by high levels of perceived stress-both on average and on days when perceived stress was higher than their own average. DISCUSSION: More positive SPA significantly dampened the impact of perceived stress, suggesting the importance of SPA as an individual characteristic within stress processes. Future work should examine how daily changes in SPA may exacerbate or mitigate the impacts of daily stress processes and health outcomes.

Resolution Status and Age as Moderators for Interpersonal Everyday Stress and Stressor-Related Affect.

OBJECTIVES: To examine stressor characteristics (i.e., stressor resolution) and individual differences (i.e., age) as moderators of affective reactivity and residue associated with everyday interpersonal stressors, including arguments and avoided arguments. METHOD: A sample of 2,022 individuals participated in the second wave of the National Study of Daily Experiences (meanage = 56.25, range = 33-84). Over 8 consecutive evenings, participants completed the Daily Inventory of Stressful Experiences and self-report measures of stressor resolution status and daily negative affect (NA) and positive affect (PA). Using multilevel modeling, we examined whether increases in daily NA and decreases in daily PA associated with arguments and avoided arguments occurring on the same day (i.e., reactivity) or the day before (i.e., residue) differed depending on resolution of the interpersonal stressor. We further examined whether such stressor resolution effects were moderated by age. RESULTS: Resolution significantly dampened NA and PA reactivity and residue associated with arguments; NA reactivity associated with avoided arguments (ps < .05). Older age was associated with being more likely to resolve both arguments and avoided arguments (ps < .05) and did reduce reactivity associated with avoided arguments. Older age did not moderate PA reactivity or NA or PA residue associated with either arguments or avoided arguments (ps > .05). DISCUSSION: Unresolved everyday arguments and avoided arguments are differentially potent in terms of affective reactivity and residue, suggesting resolution may be crucial in emotional downregulation. Future work should focus on exploring resolution of other everyday stressors to garner a comprehensive understanding of what characteristics impact stressor-affect associations and for whom.

Daily Stress Processes as Contributors to and Targets for Promoting Cognitive Health in Later Life.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that daily stress processes, including exposure and emotional reactivity to daily stressors, are associated with response time inconsistency (RTI), an indicator of processing efficiency and cognitive health. Furthermore, we considered daily stress-cognitive health associations at the level of individual differences and within-persons over time. METHODS: Participants were 111 older adults (mean = 80 years, range = 66-95 years) enrolled in a measurement burst study where assessments of response time-based cognitive performance, stressful experiences, and affect were administered on each of 6 days for a 2-week period. This protocol was repeated every 6 months for 2.5 years. Multilevel modeling was used to examine frequency of stressor exposure, nonstressor affect, and affect reactivity to daily stressors as individual difference and time-varying predictors of RTI. RESULTS: Between-persons, higher levels of nonstressor negative affect (b = 0.41, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.01 to 0.83, p = .055) and negative affect reactivity (b = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.18 to 1.42, p = .012) were associated with greater RTI. Within-persons over time, higher levels of negative affect (b = 0.20, 95% CI = 0.06 to 0.34, p = .006) and negative affect reactivity (b = 0.13, 95% CI = 0.02 to 0.24, p = .018) were associated with increased RTI among the oldest portion of the sample, whereas higher levels of positive affect (b = -0.11, 95% CI = -0.21 to -0.02, p = .019) were associated with reduced RTI. CONCLUSIONS: Negative affect reactions to daily stressors are associated with compromised RTI both between and within-persons. Findings suggest that emotional reactions to daily stressors contribute to compromise older adults' cognitive health, whereas increased positive affect may be beneficial.