Nanoparticles Containing High Loads of Paclitaxel-Silicate Prodrugs: Formulation, Drug Release, and Anticancer Efficacy.

We have investigated particle size, interior structure, drug release kinetics, and anticancer efficacy of PEG-b-PLGA-based nanoparticles loaded with a series of paclitaxel (PTX)-silicate prodrugs [PTX-Si(OR)3]. Silicate derivatization enabled us to adjust the hydrophobicity and hydrolytic lability of the prodrugs by the choice of the alkyl group (R) in the silicate derivatives. The greater hydrophobicity of these prodrugs allows for the preparation of nanoparticles that are stable in aqueous dispersion even when loaded with up to ca. 75 wt % of the prodrug. The hydrolytic lability of silicates allows for facile conversion of prodrugs back to the parent drug, PTX. A suite of eight PTX-silicate prodrugs was investigated; nanoparticles were made by flash nanoprecipitation (FNP) using a confined impingement jet mixer with a dilution step (CIJ-D). The resulting nanoparticles were 80-150 nm in size with a loading level of 47-74 wt % (wt %) of a PTX-silicate, which corresponds to 36-59 effective wt % of free PTX. Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy images show that particles are typically spherical with a core-shell structure. Prodrug/drug release profiles were measured. Release tended to be slower for prodrugs having greater hydrophobicity and slower hydrolysis rate. Nanoparticles loaded with PTX-silicate prodrugs that hydrolyze most rapidly showed in vitro cytotoxicity similar to that of the parent PTX. Nanoparticles loaded with more labile silicates also tended to show greater in vivo efficacy.

Silicate esters of paclitaxel and docetaxel: synthesis, hydrophobicity, hydrolytic stability, cytotoxicity, and prodrug potential.

We report here the synthesis and selected properties of various silicate ester derivatives (tetraalkoxysilanes) of the taxanes paclitaxel (PTX) and docetaxel (DTX) [i.e., PTX-OSi(OR)3 and DTX-OSi(OR)3]. Both the hydrophobicity and hydrolytic lability of these silicates can be (independently) controlled by choice of the alkyl group (R). The synthesis, structural characterization, hydrolytic reactivity, and in vitro cytotoxicity against the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line of most of these derivatives are described. We envision that the greater hydrophobicity of these silicates (vis-à-vis PTX or DTX itself) should be advantageous from the perspective of preparation of stable aqueous dispersions of amphiphilic block-copolymer-based nanoparticle formulations.

Flash nanoprecipitation: particle structure and stability.

Flash nanoprecipitation (FNP) is a process that, through rapid mixing, stabilizes an insoluble low molecular weight compound in a nanosized, polymer-stabilized delivery vehicle. The polymeric components are typically amphiphilic diblock copolymers (BCPs). In order to fully exploit the potential of FNP, factors affecting particle structure, size, and stability must be understood. Here we show that polymer type, hydrophobicity and crystallinity of the small molecule, and small molecule loading levels all affect particle size and stability. Of the four block copolymers (BCP) that we have studied here, poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PEG-b-PLGA) was most suitable for potential drug delivery applications due to its ability to give rise to stable nanoparticles, its biocompatibility, and its degradability. We found little difference in particle size when using PLGA block sizes over the range of 5 to 15 kDa. The choice of hydrophobic small molecule was important, as molecules with a calculated water-octanol partition coefficient (clogP) below 6 gave rise to particles that were unstable and underwent rapid Ostwald ripening. Studies probing the internal structure of nanoparticles were also performed. Analysis of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), and (1)H NMR experiments support a three-layer core-shell-corona nanoparticle structure.

A simple confined impingement jets mixer for flash nanoprecipitation.

Johnson and Prud'homme (2003. AICHE J 49:2264-2282) introduced the confined impingement jets (CIJ) mixer to prepare nanoparticles loaded with hydrophobic compounds (e.g., drugs, inks, fragrances, or pheromones) via flash nanoprecipitation (FNP). We have modified the original CIJ design to allow hand operation, eliminating the need for a syringe pump, and we added a second antisolvent dilution stage. Impingement mixing requires equal flow momentum from two opposing jets, one containing the drug in organic solvent and the other containing an antisolvent, typically water. The subsequent dilution step in the new design allows rapid quenching with high antisolvent concentration that enhances nanoparticle stability. This new CIJ with dilution (CIJ-D) mixer is a simple, cheap, and efficient device to produce nanoparticles. We have made 55 nm diameter ß-carotene nanoparticles using the CIJ-D mixer. They are stable and reproducible in terms of particle size and distribution. We have also compared the performance of our CIJ-D mixer with the vortex mixer, which can operate at unequal flow rates (Liu et al., 2008. Chem Eng Sci 63:2829-2842), to make ß-carotene-containing particles over a series of turbulent conditions. On the basis of dynamic light scattering measurements, the new CIJ-D mixer produces stable particles of a size similar to the vortex mixer. Our CIJ-D design requires less volume and provides an easily operated and inexpensive tool to produce nanoparticles via FNP and to evaluate new nanoparticle formulation.

Effects of block copolymer properties on nanocarrier protection from in vivo clearance.

Drug nanocarrier clearance by the immune system must be minimized to achieve targeted delivery to pathological tissues. There is considerable interest in finding in vitro tests that can predict in vivo clearance outcomes. In this work, we produce nanocarriers with dense PEG layers resulting from block copolymer-directed assembly during rapid precipitation. Nanocarriers are formed using block copolymers with hydrophobic blocks of polystyrene (PS), poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL), poly-D,L-lactide (PLA), or poly-lactide-co-glycolide (PLGA), and hydrophilic blocks of polyethylene glycol (PEG) with molecular weights from 1 kg/mol to 9 kg/mol. Nanocarriers with paclitaxel prodrugs are evaluated in vivo in Foxn1(nu) mice to determine relative rates of clearance. The amount of nanocarrier in circulation after 4h varies from 10% to 85% of initial dose, depending on the block copolymer. In vitro complement activation assays are conducted to correlate in vivo circulation to the protection of the nanocarrier surface from complement binding and activation. Guidelines for optimizing block copolymer structure to maximize circulation of nanocarriers formed by rapid precipitation and directed assembly are proposed, relating to the relative sizes of the hydrophilic and hydrophobic blocks, the hydrophobicity of the anchoring block, the absolute size of the PEG block, and polymer crystallinity. The in vitro results distinguish between the poorly circulating PEG(5k)-PCL(9 k) and the better circulating nanocarriers, but could not rank the better circulating nanocarriers in order of circulation time. Analysis of PEG surface packing on monodisperse 200 nm latex spheres indicates that the size of the hydrophobic PCL, PS, and PLA blocks are correlated with the PEG blob size. Suggestions for next steps for in vitro measurements are made.

A Strategy for Control of "Random" Copolymerization of Lactide and Glycolide: Application to Synthesis of PEG-b-PLGA Block Polymers Having Narrow Dispersity.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a biodegradable copolymer that is also acceptable for use in a variety of biomedical applications. Typically, a random PLGA polymer is synthesized in a bulk batch polymerization using a tin-based catalyst at high temperatures. This methodology results in relatively broad polydispersity indexes (PDIs) due to transesterification, and the polymer product is often discolored. We report here the use of 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]-undec-7-ene (DBU), a known, effective, and convenient organocatalyst for the ring-opening polymerization of cyclic esters, to synthesize random copolymers of lactide and glycolide. The polymerization kinetics of the homo- and copolymerizations of lactide and glycolide were explored via NMR spectroscopy. A novel strategy that employs a controlled addition of the more reactive glycolide monomer to a solution containing the lactide monomer, the poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) macroinitiator, and DBU catalyst was developed. Using this tactic (semi-batch polymerization), we synthesized a series of block copolymers that exhibited excellent correlation of the expected and observed molecular weights and possessed narrow PDIs. We also measured the thermal properties of these block copolymers and observed trends based on the composition of the block copolymer. We also explored the need for experimental rigor in several aspects of the preparations and have identified a set of convenient reaction conditions that provide polymer products that retain the aforementioned desirable characteristics. These polymerizations proceed rapidly at room temperature and without the need for tin-based catalysts to provide PEG-b-PLGAs suitable for use in biomedical investigations.