Corrigendum: Mesenchymal stromal cell derived extracellular vesicles as a therapeutic tool: immune regulation, MSC priming, and applications to SLE.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1355845.].

Mesenchymal stromal cell derived extracellular vesicles as a therapeutic tool: immune regulation, MSC priming, and applications to SLE.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by a dysfunction of the immune system. Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSCs) derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanometer-sized particles carrying a diverse range of bioactive molecules, such as proteins, miRNAs, and lipids. Despite the methodological disparities, recent works on MSC-EVs have highlighted their broad immunosuppressive effect, thus driving forwards the potential of MSC-EVs in the treatment of chronic diseases. Nonetheless, their mechanism of action is still unclear, and better understanding is needed for clinical application. Therefore, we describe in this review the diverse range of bioactive molecules mediating their immunomodulatory effect, the techniques and possibilities for enhancing their immune activity, and finally the potential application to SLE.

Hybrid extracellular vesicles for drug delivery.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are expected to serve as interesting drug delivery vectors as they may offer unique and new properties for drug delivery. Their natural origin, protein and nucleic acid composition, and intrinsic pleiotropic therapeutic effects could enable new possibilities in the field of drug delivery. Here, we aimed to review the methods used to produce Hybrid EVs, a recently emerged type of EV-based vector made from both EVs and synthetic vectors to exploit their respective properties. Hybrid EV/synthetic objects can be obtained by incubation, electrostatic interactions, polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated fusion, co-extrusion, freeze-thawing, or simple EV surface modification, leading to different types of objects. We also opted to review the properties of these vectors, and specifically compared them with those of other drug delivery vectors. It has to be noticed that only a limited number of study report loading metrics that allow cross article comparison. Based on this critical analysis, we attempted to draw the pith and marrow from these relatively difficult-to-compare studies and integrate them into the more general context of opportunities in drug delivery and drug development, with a particular focus on oncology.

Sequence-dependent inhibition of cGAS and TLR9 DNA sensing by 2'-O-methyl gapmer oligonucleotides.

Oligonucleotide-based therapeutics have the capacity to engage with nucleic acid immune sensors to activate or block their response, but a detailed understanding of these immunomodulatory effects is currently lacking. We recently showed that 2'-O-methyl (2'OMe) gapmer antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) exhibited sequence-dependent inhibition of sensing by the RNA sensor Toll-Like Receptor (TLR) 7. Here we discovered that 2'OMe ASOs can also display sequence-dependent inhibitory effects on two major sensors of DNA, namely cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and TLR9. Through a screen of 80 2'OMe ASOs and sequence mutants, we characterized key features within the 20-mer ASOs regulating cGAS and TLR9 inhibition, and identified a highly potent cGAS inhibitor. Importantly, we show that the features of ASOs inhibiting TLR9 differ from those inhibiting cGAS, with only a few sequences inhibiting both pathways. Together with our previous studies, our work reveals a complex pattern of immunomodulation where 95% of the ASOs tested inhibited at least one of TLR7, TLR9 or cGAS by ≥30%, which may confound interpretation of their in vivo functions. Our studies constitute the broadest analysis of the immunomodulatory effect of 2'OMe ASOs on nucleic acid sensing to date and will support refinement of their therapeutic development.

Rational design of antisense oligonucleotides modulating the activity of TLR7/8 agonists.

Oligonucleotide-based therapeutics have become a reality, and are set to transform management of many diseases. Nevertheless, the modulatory activities of these molecules on immune responses remain incompletely defined. Here, we show that gene targeting 2'-O-methyl (2'OMe) gapmer antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) can have opposing activities on Toll-Like Receptors 7 and 8 (TLR7/8), leading to divergent suppression of TLR7 and activation of TLR8, in a sequence-dependent manner. Surprisingly, TLR8 potentiation by the gapmer ASOs was blunted by locked nucleic acid (LNA) and 2'-methoxyethyl (2'MOE) modifications. Through a screen of 192 2'OMe ASOs and sequence mutants, we characterized the structural and sequence determinants of these activities. Importantly, we identified core motifs preventing the immunosuppressive activities of 2'OMe ASOs on TLR7. Based on these observations, we designed oligonucleotides strongly potentiating TLR8 sensing of Resiquimod, which preserve TLR7 function, and promote strong activation of phagocytes and immune cells. We also provide proof-of-principle data that gene-targeting ASOs can be selected to synergize with TLR8 agonists currently under investigation as immunotherapies, and show that rational ASO selection can be used to prevent unintended immune suppression of TLR7. Taken together, our work characterizes the immumodulatory effects of ASOs to advance their therapeutic development.