Childhood neglect and cognitive development in extremely low birth weight infants: a prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between child maltreatment and cognitive development in extremely low birth weight infants, adjusting for perinatal and parental risk factors. METHODS: A total of 352 infants with birth weight of <1000 g were followed prospectively for 4 years. The data were analyzed with regard to perinatal and parental risk factors and referrals for suspected child maltreatment to government agencies. Perinatal risk factors included birth weight, gestation, gender, periventricular hemorrhage, ventricular dilation, home oxygen requirement, and necrotizing enterocolitis. Parental risk factors included maternal age, race, marital status, education, and hospital insurance status. Cognitive z scores were calculated at 1, 2, and 4 years, and head circumference z scores were calculated at birth, 2 years, and 4 years. RESULTS: Fifteen percent of infants were referred to child protective services for suspected child maltreatment. The adjusted general cognitive index at 4 years was significantly reduced in infants who were referred for neglect (-17.6; 95% confidence interval: -3.3, -31.9). Infants whose neglect was substantiated had a progressive decline in their cognitive function over time (cognitive z scores: -0.97, -1.37, and -2.05 standard deviations at 1, 2, and 4 years, respectively), compared with non-neglected infants (z scores: -0.04 to -0.36). They had a significantly smaller head circumference at 2 and 4 years but not at birth (adjusted z score at 4 years: -0.812; 95% confidence interval: -0.167, -1.458). Perinatal risk factors and physical disability were not related to maltreatment referral; only parental factors were independent predictors. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood neglect is associated significantly with delayed cognitive development and head growth. Addressing risk factors antenatally and in early childhood may improve outcomes.

Non-accidental fractures in infants: risk of further abuse.

OBJECTIVES: To look for features of non-accidental fractures in infants aged under I year and assess the risk of subsequent morbidity and mortality. METHODOLOGY: A retrospective analysis of 99 children aged under 1 year who presented to the Mater Children's Hospital, Brisbane, between January 1990 and December 1993, and were found to have a fracture. The 99 infants were divided into non-accidental and accidental groups. Comparison was made between the two groups for age, sex and type of fracture. Deaths, subsequent injuries and child protection notifications until March 1997 were compared between groups. RESULTS: Of the 99 infants with fracture (64 males, 35 female), the skull and femur were the most prevalent sites of fracture. Twenty-six infants had fractures assessed as non-accidental. This group was younger but did not differ significantly in gender or site of fracture. Infants aged under 4 months had a significantly greater risk of their fracture being non-accidental (P = 0.0007). Subsequent substantiated child protection notifications occurred in nine of the non-accidental group and in one of the accidental group (P = 0.000001). There was no significant difference in the rate of subsequent notifications between those infants with abuse who were removed from their carers and those not removed. Subsequent injuries presenting to hospital occurred in 17 of the accidental group and three of the non-accidental group (P = 0.20). There were no deaths. CONCLUSION: Infants aged under 1 year with fractures have a high prevalence of abuse. The risk of abuse as cause for the fracture is greater in those aged under 4 months. Infants with non-accidental fractures have a high risk of further abuse even with intervention.

Transformation of Rickettsia prowazekii to erythromycin resistance encoded by the Escherichia coli ereB gene.

Rickettsia prowazekii, the etiologic agent of epidemic typhus, is an obligate, intracytoplasmic, parasitic bacterium. Recently, the transformation of this bacterium via electroporation has been reported. However, in these studies identification of transformants was dependent upon either selection of an R. prowazekii rpoB chromosomal mutation imparting rifampin resistance or expression of the green fluorescent protein and flow cytometric analysis. In this paper we describe the expression in R. prowazekii of the Escherichia coli ereB gene. This gene codes for an erythromycin esterase that cleaves erythromycin. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the expression of a nonrickettsial, antibiotic-selectable gene in R. prowazekii. The availability of a positive selection for rickettsial transformants is an important step in the characterization of genetic analysis systems in the rickettsiae.

The yeast mitochondrial citrate transport protein. Probing the roles of cysteines, Arg(181), and Arg(189) in transporter function.

Utilizing site-directed mutagenesis in combination with chemical modification of mutated residues, we have studied the roles of cysteine and arginine residues in the mitochondrial citrate transport protein (CTP) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Our strategy consisted of the sequential replacement of each of the four endogenous cysteine residues with Ser or in the case of Cys(73) with Val. Wild-type and mutated forms of the CTP were overexpressed in Escherichia coli, purified, and reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles. During the sequential replacement of each Cys, the effects of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic sulfhydryl reagents were examined. The data indicate that Cys(73) and Cys(256) are primarily responsible for inhibition of the wild-type CTP by hydrophilic sulfhydryl reagents. Experiments conducted with triple Cys replacement mutants (i.e. Cys(192) being the only remaining Cys) indicated that sulfhydryl reagents no longer inhibit but in fact stimulate CTP function 2-3-fold. Following the simultaneous replacement of all four endogenous Cys, the functional properties of the resulting Cys-less CTP were shown to be quite similar to those of the wild-type protein. Finally, utilizing the Cys-less CTP as a template, the roles of Arg(181) and Arg(189), two positively charged residues located within transmembrane domain IV, in CTP function were examined. Replacement of either residue with a Cys abolishes function, whereas replacement with a Lys or a Cys that is subsequently covalently modified with (2-aminoethyl)methanethiosulfonate hydrobromide, a reagent that restores positive charge at this site, supports CTP function. The results clearly show that positive charge at these two positions is essential for CTP function, although the chemistry of the guanidinium residue is not. Finally, these studies: (i) definitely demonstrate that Cys residues do not play an important role in the mechanism of the CTP; (ii) prove the utility of the Cys-less CTP for studying structure/function relationships within this metabolically important protein; and (iii) have led to the hypothesis that the polar face of alpha-helical transmembrane domain IV, within which Arg(181), Arg(189), and Cys(192) are located, constitutes an essential portion of the citrate translocation pathway through the membrane.

Isolation and characterization of the dnaA gene of Rickettsia prowazekii.

The dnaA gene encoding the initiator protein of DNA replication was isolated from the obligate intracellular bacterium, Rickettsia prowazekii. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence of R. prowazekii DnaA with other bacterial DnaA proteins revealed extensive similarity. However, the rickettsial sequence is unique in the number of basic lysine residues found within a highly conserved portion of the putative DNA binding region, suggesting that the rickettsial protein may recognize a DNA sequence that differs from the consensus DnaA box sequence identified in other bacteria. Consensus DnaA box sequences, found upstream of many bacterial dnaA genes, were not identified upstream of rickettsial dnaA gene. In addition, gene organization within this region differed from that of other bacteria. The putative start of transcription of the rickettsial dnaA gene was localized to a site 522 nucleotides (nt) upstream of the DnaA start codon.

Transformation of Rickettsia prowazekii to rifampin resistance.

Rickettsia prowazekii, the causative agent of epidemic typhus, is an obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium that grows directly within the cytoplasm of the eucaryotic host cell. The absence of techniques for genetic manipulation hampers the study of this organism's unique biology and pathogenic mechanisms. To establish the feasibility of genetic manipulation in this organism, we identified a specific mutation in the rickettsial rpoB gene that confers resistance to rifampin and used it to demonstrate allelic exchange in R. prowazekii. Comparison of the rpoB sequences from the rifampin-sensitive (Rifs) Madrid E strain and a rifampin-resistant (Rifr) mutant identified a single point mutation that results in an arginine-to-lysine change at position 546 of the R. prowazekii RNA polymerase beta subunit. A plasmid containing this mutation and two additional silent mutations created in codons flanking the Lys-546 codon was introduced into the Rifs Madrid E strain of R. prowazekii by electroporation, and in the presence of rifampin, resistant rickettsiae were selected. Transformation, via homologous recombination, was demonstrated by DNA sequencing of PCR products containing the three mutations in the Rifr region of rickettsial rpoB. This is the first successful demonstration of genetic transformation of Rickettsia prowazekii and represents the initial step in the establishment of a genetic system in this obligate intracellular pathogen.

Transcriptional characterization of the Rickettsia prowazekii major macromolecular synthesis operon.

Recent studies have demonstrated that Rickettsia prowazekii can regulate transcription of selected genes at the level of initiation. However, little information concerning the existence of operons and coordinate gene regulation in this obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium is available. To address these issues, we have focused on the rpoD gene linkage group (greA-open reading frame 23 [ORF23]-dnaG-rpoD), which includes the rickettsial analog (ORF23-dnaG-rpoD) of the major macromolecular synthesis operon (MMSO). The rickettsial MMSO consists of an ORF coding for a protein of unknown function the structural genes for DNA primase (dnaG) and the major sigma factor of RNA polymerase (rpoD). RNase protection assays (RPA) were used to determine if these genes are organized into an operon controlled by multiple promoters and the quantities of transcripts produced by these genes relative to each other. RPA with a probe spanning the 270-base greA-ORF23 intervening region identified a putative transcriptional promoter within the intervening sequence. Multiple RPA probes spanning the next 4,041 bases of the linkage group demonstrated the presence of a continuous transcript and thus the existence of an operon. A probe spanning the dnaG-rpoD region revealed that two additional mRNA fragments were also protected, which enabled us to identify additional putative promoters for rpoD within dnaG. Primer extension determined that the 5' ends of the three transcripts consist separately of adenine (located 227 bases upstream of ORF23) and uracil and adenine (located 336 and 250 bases upstream of rpoD, respectively). Quantitation of transcripts produced by the three ORFs determined the relative amounts of transcripts (ORF23 to dnaG to rpoD) to be 1:2.7:5.1.

Deletion of the nuclear gene encoding the mitochondrial citrate transport protein from Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The nuclear gene encoding the mitochondrial citrate transport protein (i.e., CTP1) has been deleted from a haploid yeast strain. The stable yeast deletion strain was constructed by homologous recombination of the HIS3 gene at the CTP1 gene locus. Deletion of the CTP was confirmed by PCR. Immunoblot analysis provided the first quantitative estimate of the level of the CTP in wild-type yeast mitochondria and indicated the absence of expressed CTP in mitochondria isolated from the deletion strain. Deletion of CTP1 did not lead to a phenotype on any carbon source tested, indicating that CTP1 is not an essential gene. This suggests that either known alternative pathways are able to produce sufficient acetyl-CoA to support biosynthetic reactions, or there exists a second CTP gene. The ability of the deletion strain to serve as a host for the correct targeting and overexpression of a mutated CTP was then demonstrated. These studies provide a system which permits the use of site-directed mutagenesis to examine both CTP targeting to mitochondria, as well as the molecular basis underlying CTP function. Moreover, this system will not only facilitate the study of the yeast CTP, but also CTPs expressed from the cDNAs of higher eukaryotes.

The citrate synthase-encoding gene of Rickettsia prowazekii is controlled by two promoters.

The transcripts of the citrate synthase-encoding gene (gltA) in Rickettsia prowazekii (Rp), an obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium, were analyzed by RNase protection (RP), primer extension (PE) and in vitro transcription assays. Analysis of the 5' end of the gltA mRNA by RP and PE assays revealed that there were two gltA mRNAs with the 5' ends located at 16 bp and 307 bp upstream from the gltA coding region. Since these two mRNAs might represent two species of mRNA transcribed from two different promoters or a single transcript that was processed to give two mRNAs, an in vitro transcription analysis with purified Rp RNA polymerase (RNAP) was performed to distinguish these two possibilities. Purified Rp RNAP catalyzed the formation of two transcripts initiated from the same nucleotides indicated by RP and PE. Sequence analysis identified Escherichia coli (Ec) promoter-like sequences immediately upstream from both transcription start points (tsp). The first promoter (promoter P1) had the core sequence TTCTAA-N17-TATACT, was 6 bp upstream from the tsp (base A) and was centered at 37 bp upstream from the coding region. The second promoter (promoter P2) had the core sequence ATGAAA-N17-TAAAGT, was 7 bp upstream from the tsp (base T) and was centered at 329 bp upstream from the coding region. This is the first demonstration of multiple promoters in this obligate intracellular parasite which has implications concerning transcriptional regulation.

High level expression and characterization of the mitochondrial citrate transport protein from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The gene encoding the mitochondrial citrate transport protein (CTP) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been identified, and its protein product has been overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The expressed CTP accumulates in inclusion bodies and can be solubilized with sarkosyl. Approximately 25 mg of solubilized CTP at a purity of 75% is obtained per liter of E. coli culture. The function of the solubilized CTP has been reconstituted in a liposomal system where both its kinetic parameters (i.e. Km = 0.36 mM and Vmax = 2.5 mumol/min/mg protein) and its substrate specificity have been determined. Notably, the yeast CTP displays a stricter specificity for tricarboxylates than do CTPs from higher eukaryotic organisms. Dot matrix analysis of the yeast CTP sequence indicates the presence of three homologous sequence domains (each approximately 100 residues in length), which are also related to domains in other CTPs. Thus, the yeast CTP displays the tripartite structure characteristic of other mitochondrial transporters. Alignment of the yeast CTP sequence with CTPs from other sources defines a consensus sequence that displays 89 positions of amino acid identity, as well as the more generalized mitochondrial transporter-associated sequence motif. Based on hydropathy analysis, the yeast CTP contains six putative membrane-spanning alpha-helices. Finally, Southern blot analysis indicates that the yeast genome contains a single gene encoding the mitochondrial CTP. Our data indicate that, based on both its structural and functional properties, the expressed yeast CTP can be assigned membership in the mitochondrial carrier family. The identification of the yeast CTP gene, and the expression and purification of large quantities of its protein product, pave the way for investigations into the roles of specific amino acids in the CTP translocation mechanism, as well as for the initiation of crystallization trials.

High-yield bacterial expression, purification, and functional reconstitution of the tricarboxylate transport protein from rat liver mitochondria.

The rat liver mitochondrial tricarboxylate transport protein has been overexpressed in E. coli. The expressed transporter, which contains a 21 amino acid N-terminal fusion sequence, accumulates in inclusion bodies. Subsequent extraction of the tricarboxylate transporter from isolated inclusion bodies yields approximately 90 mg of transport protein per liter of E. coli culture at a purity of greater than 90%. Upon incorporation into phospholipid vesicles the purified, overexpressed transporter catalyzes a 1,2,3-benezenetricarboxylate-sensitive citrate/citrate exchange (i.e., the defining reaction of the mitochondrial tricarboxylate transporter). Kinetic characterization of the reconstituted transporter indicates a Km of 0.37 mM and a Vmax of 101 nmol/min/mg protein. The substrate specificity of the reconstituted, expressed transporter is virtually identical to that of the native transporter. These studies represent the first overexpression of the rat liver mitochondrial tricarboxylate transporter. By providing a large amount of highly-purified, functionally competent transporter this system will now enable a variety of structural studies, including site-directed mutagenesis, which heretofore could not be performed.

Sequence analysis of the Rickettsia prowazekii gyrA gene.

The Rickettsia prowazekii (Rp) gyrA gene, which codes for a subunit of DNA gyrase in this obligate intracellular bacterium, has been isolated and characterized. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed an open reading frame (ORF), initiating with a GTG start codon, of 2718 bp that could encode a protein of 905 amino acids (aa) with a calculated M(r) of 101,048. The Rp gyrase subunit A (GyrA), when compared to GyrA analogs of other bacterial species, exhibited 43 to 50% identity. Alignment of the Rp GyrA aa sequence with the other analogs revealed the presence of a span of additional aa within the putative DNA-binding domain. The lack of an ORF within 865 bp upstream from the Rp gyrA demonstrates a Rp gene organization different from that of characterized gyrA from other species. Despite the similarity to Escherichia coli GyrA, Rp GyrA did not complement an E. coli gyrA temperature-sensitive mutant. However, Rp gyrA was dominant to an E. coli gyrA96 nalidixic-acid-resistant (NalR) mutant, conferring Nal sensitivity when introduced into the NalR E. coli strain.

Isolation and characterization of the Rickettsia prowazekii recA gene.

The recA gene has been isolated from Rickettsia prowazekii, an obligate intracellular bacterium. Comparison of the amino acid sequence of R. prowazekii RecA with that of Escherichia coli RecA revealed that 62% of the residues were identical. The highest identity was found with RecA of Legionella pneumophila, in which 69% of the residues were identical. Amino acid residues of E. coli RecA associated with functional activities are conserved in rickettsial RecA, and the R. prowazekii recA gene complements E. coli recA mutants for UV light and methyl methanesulfonate sensitivities as well as recombinational deficiencies. The characterized region upstream of rickettsial recA did not contain a sequence homologous to an E. coli LexA binding site (SOS box), suggesting differences in the regulation of the R. prowazekii recA gene.

Characterization of a Rickettsia rickettsii DNA fragment analogous to the fir A-ORF17-lpxA region of Escherichia coli.

The firA and lpxA genes, as well as an ORF coding for a putative 16-kDa protein of unknown function, have been identified and characterized in the obligate intracellular bacterium. Rickettsia rickettsii. This is the first description of these genes, which code for enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of lipid A, in a species outside of the Enterobacteriaceae. The deduced amino acid (aa) sequences of FirA, ORF16 and LpxA of R. rickettsii, when compared to their Escherichia coli analogs, exhibited 35, 44 and 41% aa identity, respectively. In addition, the order of genes in R. rickettsii, firA-ORF16-lpxA, was identical to that found in E. coli; however, the spacing between the rickettsial genes was greater. Interestingly, the R. rickettsii FirA and LpxA deduced proteins retain an unusual hexapeptide repeat pattern found in E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium FirA/Ssc and E. coli LpxA, as well as other acyltransferases, providing additional support for the importance of this structure.

Isolation and characterization of the Rickettsia prowazekii gene encoding the flavoprotein subunit of succinate dehydrogenase.

The gene (sdhA) coding for the flavoprotein subunit (SdhA) of succinate dehydrogenase of the obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium, Rickettsia prowazekii, has been isolated using an oligodeoxyribonucleotide probe to the conserved flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-binding region of characterized flavoproteins. Nucleotide (nt) sequence analysis revealed an open reading frame (ORF) of 1791 bp capable of encoding a protein of 596 amino acids (aa) with a deduced M(r) of 65,444. The deduced aa sequence, when compared to the flavoprotein subunits of Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Bos taurus, revealed 52.8, 34.0, 65.8 and 52.0% aa identity, respectively. R. prowazekii SdhA produced in E. coli minicells and analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) migrated as a protein of approximately 63 kDa, comparable to the size of the deduced protein. In addition, two proteins of approximately 12 and 41 kDa were also produced in the E. coli minicells. The production of these proteins resulted from additional translational starts within the SdhA coding sequence, suggesting differences between the translational start signals of E. coli and R. prowazekii. Despite the similarity of R. prowazekii SdhA to that of E. coli, the R. prowazekii SdhA did not complement an E. coli sdhA mutant. In addition, analysis of the nt sequence immediately upstream from R. prowazekii sdhA revealed that the rickettsial sdh gene organization differs from that of E. coli and B. subtilis.

The mitochondrial tricarboxylate transport protein. cDNA cloning, primary structure, and comparison with other mitochondrial transport proteins.

The amino acid sequence of the rat liver mitochondrial tricarboxylate transport protein has been deduced from its corresponding cDNA. Using the polymerase chain reaction, with primers derived from amino acid sequence information that we obtained by direct sequencing of the purified transporter and its internal peptides, a cDNA fragment was amplified that encodes approximately two-thirds of the tricarboxylate transport protein. This cDNA fragment was used to screen a rat liver lambda gt11 cDNA library which permitted the isolation and sequencing of a cDNA clone that encodes the entire tricarboxylate transporter. The clone is 1927 base pairs in length with 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions of 419 and 572 base pairs, respectively. The open reading frame encodes a mature transport protein of 298 amino acids preceded by a presequence of 13 residues. Analysis of the tricarboxylate transporter sequence indicates that it contains three related sequence domains, each of approximately 100 amino acid residues in length. Dot plot comparisons and sequence alignment indicate that these domains are related to each other, as well as to domains of similar length that are present in other mitochondrial transporters. Hydrophobicity analysis predicts that the tricarboxylate carrier contains six membrane-spanning alpha-helices (two per 100-amino acid sequence domain) and has permitted the construction of an initial model for the topography of this transporter within the mitochondrial inner membrane. Finally, Southern blot analysis of both rat and human genomic DNA demonstrates the presence of multiple sequences related to the tricarboxylate transporter in both genomes. These studies provide the first information on the primary structure of the mitochondrial tricarboxylate transport protein. We are now able, on the basis of both structural and functional considerations, to assign this metabolically important transporter to the mitochondrial carrier family, the members of which are likely to have evolved from a common genetic origin.

Characterization of the Rickettsia prowazekii pepA gene encoding leucine aminopeptidase.

The pepA gene, encoding a protein with leucine aminopeptidase activity, was isolated from Rickettsia prowazekii, an obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed an open reading frame of 1,502 bp that would encode a protein of 499 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 53,892, a size comparable to that of the protein produced in Escherichia coli minicells containing the rickettsial gene. Also, heat-stable leucine aminopeptidase activity was demonstrable in an E. coli peptidase-deficient strain containing R. prowazekii pepA. Comparison of the amino acid sequence of the R. prowazekii PepA with the characterized leucine aminopeptidases from E. coli, Arabidopsis thaliana, and bovine eye lens revealed that 39.8, 34.9, and 34.0% of the residues were identical, respectively. Residues proposed to be part of the active site or involved in the binding of metal ions in the bovine metalloenzyme were all conserved in R. prowazekii PepA. However, despite the structural and enzymatic similarity to E. coli PepA, the R. prowazekii protein was unable to complement the cer site-specific, PepA-dependent recombination system found in E. coli that resolves ColE1-type plasmid multimers into their monomeric forms.

Characterization of the gene coding for the Rickettsia prowazekii DNA primase analogue.

The gene (dnaG) coding for DNA primase in the obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium, Rickettsia prowazekii, has been isolated and characterized. An open reading frame (ORF) of 1848 bp capable of encoding 616 amino acids (aa) is located 18 bp upstream from the gene coding for the major sigma factor of R. prowazekii, sigma 73. Based on aa sequence comparisons of DNA primase from R. prowazekii, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Bacillus subtilis, we propose that R. prowazekii dnaG begins 69 bp into the ORF and encodes 593 aa with a calculated M(r) of 68,683. An upstream ORF overlaps 66 of the first 69 bp of the larger R. prowazekii dnaG ORF, suggesting either an overlapping gene structure or the generation of the smaller protein product of 593 aa. Predicted aa sequence of R. prowazekii primase compared to E. coli, S. typhimurium and B. subtilis primases reveals 30.5%, 30.5% and 29.7% aa identity, respectively. The R. prowazekii dnaG gene failed to complement an E. coli dnaG temperature sensitive mutation perhaps due to poor expression of the gene or inability to function properly in E. coli. The gene organization of an ORF followed by DNA primase (dnaG) and then the major sigma factor (rpoD) is consistent with the major macromolecular synthesis operons of E. coli, S. typhimurium and B. subtilis.

Isolation and characterization of the gene coding for the major sigma factor of Rickettsia prowazekii DNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

The gene coding for the major sigma factor of Rickettsia prowazekii, an obligate intracellular parasitic bacterium, has been isolated utilizing an oligodeoxyribonucleotide as a probe to a conserved region of major sigma factors. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed an open reading frame of 1905 bp that could encode a protein of 635 amino acids (aa) with a calculated molecular size of 73 kDa (sigma 73). R. prowazekii sigma 73 displayed extensive homology with major sigma factors from a variety of eubacteria. Comparison of the major sigma factors from Escherichia coli and R. prowazekii revealed 44.9% aa identity. R. prowazekii sigma 73 produced in E. coli minicells migrated as a 85-kDa protein when analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis. This anomalous migration is characteristic of eubacterial major sigma factors and agrees with the migration noted for the purified rickettsial sigma protein. Despite a similarity to the E. coli sigma 70 encoded by rpoD, R. prowazekii sigma 73 did not complement E. coli rpoD temperature-sensitive mutants.