Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease among Patients Attending a Specialist Diabetes Clinic in Jamaica.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) among patients attending the University Hospital of the West Indies (UHWI) Diabetes Clinic and to determine the proportion of patients at high risk for adverse outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study among patients attending the UHWI Diabetes Clinic between 2009 and 2010. Trained nurses administered a questionnaire, reviewed dockets, and performed urinalyses. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was calculated using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equation. Albuminuria was assessed using urine test strips for protein and microalbumin. Chronic kidney disease was defined as an eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2 or albuminuria ≥ 30 mg/g creatinine. Risk of adverse outcome (all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease and kidney failure) was determined using the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcome (KDIGO) 2012 prognosis grid. RESULTS: Participants included 100 women and 32 men (mean age, 55.4 ± 12.9 years, mean duration of diabetes, 16.7 ± 11.7 years). Twenty-two per cent of participants had eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73m2. Moderate albuminuria (30-300 mg/g) was present in 20.5% of participants and severe albuminuria (> 300 mg/g) in 62.1%. Overall prevalence of CKD was 86.3% (95%CI 80.4%, 92.2%). Based on KDIGO risk categories, 50.8% were at high risk and 17.4% at very high risk of adverse outcomes. CONCLUSION: Most patients at the UHWI Diabetes Clinic had CKD and were at high or very high risk of adverse outcomes. Further studies to determine the burden of CKD in other clinical settings and to identify the best strategies for preventing adverse outcomes in developing countries need to be conducted.

Diabetic foot complications among patients attending a specialist diabetes clinic in Jamaica: prevalence and associated factors.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence of diabetic foot complications among patients at a specialist diabetes clinic in Jamaica and identify factors associated with foot complications. METHODS: A stratified random sample of 188 patients were interviewed and examined between 2009 and 2010. Trained nurses obtained demographic and clinical data, measured anthropometrics and performedfoot examinations including inspection for amputations, ulcers or infection and assessment of pain, vibration and pressure perception. RESULTS: Participants included 143 women and 45 men (mean age 56years; mean diabetes duration 16 years). The prevalence of amputations was 8.5% (95% CI 4.5, 12.5%) and was higher among men (22.2%) compared to women (4.2%, p < 0.05). Prevalence of current ulcers and current foot infections was 4.3% and 3.7%, respectively. Overall, 12% ofpatients had at least one of these foot complications. Foot complications were more prevalent among men, patients with high blood pressure (BP > or = 130/80 mmHg) or peripheral neuropathy In multivariable logistic regression models, factors associated with foot complications were: neuropathy (OR 9.3 [95% CI 2.8, 30.3]), high BP (OR 7.9 [1.3, 49.7]) and diabetes duration (OR 1.32 [1.02, 1.72]). CONCLUSION: Approximately one of every eight patients in this specialist clinic had a major foot complication. Associated factors were neuropathy, high blood pressure and longer duration of diabetes.

Clinical and laboratory features of youth onset type 2 diabetes in Jamaica.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the frequency of youth onset Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) in Jamaica and the characteristics of youth with this form of diabetes. METHODS: Patients from two major referral hospitals, diagnosed with diabetes before age 25 years and < 6 years prior to the study, were evaluated. Classification was based on the presence of GAD-65 and IA-2 diabetes autoantibodies (AB), fasting (FCP) and stimulated C-peptide (SCP) measurements, serum leptin and clinical phenotype as follows: (i) Type IA diabetes--AB+, (ii) Type lB diabetes--AB- and FCP < 230 pmol/l and/or SCP < 660pmol/l, (iii) Type 2 diabetes - AB- and FCP > 500 pmol/L and or SCP 2 1160 pmol/l (iv) Untypeable diabetes--AB- and FCP 230-500 pmol/l and or SCP 660-1160 pmol/l and (v) Lipoatrophic diabetes--clinical phenotype and serum leptin. RESULTS: Fifty-eight participants (21M, 37F, age 20-8 years, duration of diabetes 2.6-2 years) were enrolled in the study. Using the classification criteria, Type 1 diabetes was the most common form of diabetes: 18 (31%) Type 1A, 18 (31%) Type IB. Overall 22% (13 patients) had T2D. Patients with T2D were more likely to be female, older at diagnosis, obese and have a higher blood pressure when compared to those with Type 1 diabetes. In logistic regression analysis, age of diabetes onset, gender BMI, systolic and diastolic blood pressure were significantly associated with T2D. Obesity measured by BMI was the strongest predictor of T2D. CONCLUSIONS: While Type 1 diabetes was the predominant form of diabetes in this study, a significant proportion of Jamaicans with youth onset diabetes may have T2D. Obesity is the strongest clinical predictor of Type 2 diabetes in the young diabetic patient.

Cardiovascular risk profile in Caribbean youth with diabetes mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of diabetes mellitus type on conventional and novel cardiovascular risk factors in patients, diagnosed with diabetes from two major referral hospitals in Jamaica, before age 25 years and with diabetes duration < 6 years. METHODS: Participants were classified based on the presence of GAD-65 and IA-2 autoantibodies, C-peptide, leptin and clinical phenotype. Trained observers obtained anthropometric measurements and sitting blood pressure. Fasting blood was taken for glucose, A1c, lipids, high sensitivity C-reactive protein and lipoprotein profile. RESULTS: Fifty-eight participants (21M; 37F age 20 +/- 8 [Mean +/- SD] years, diabetes duration 2.6 +/- 2 years) were enrolled. Thirty-six had Type 1 diabetes (T1D), thirteen Type 2 diabetes (T2D), six were not typed and three had lipoatrophic diabetes. Patients with Type 2 diabetes (T2D) were more obese with a higher systolic blood pressure but a lower A1c than those with Type 1 diabetes (T1D). Total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, VLDL, LDL and HDL particle numbers were similar in patients with T1D and T2D. HDL-cholesterol and LDL and HDL particle sizes were lower in patients with T2D but differences were no longer significant after adjusting for BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors for cardiovascular disease are common in patients with all forms of youth onset diabetes. Clinicians should therefore investigate these risk factors in their patients regardless of diabetes type.

Autoantibodies in Caribbean youth with diabetes mellitus.

The prevalence of diabetes and other autoantibodies in patients with recently diagnosed youth onset diabetes was evaluated. Fifty-seven patients (95% black, age 19 +/- 5 years, 36% male, diabetes duration 2.6 +/- 2.2 years) were clinically diagnosed as having type 1 (n = 35), type 2 (n = 13) and lipoatrophic diabetes (n = 3) while 6 remained untyped. GAD65 was the most common diabetes-associated autoantibody in patients with type 1A diabetes (12/17; 71%). The prevalence of any diabetes-associated autoantibodies decreased with diabetes duration (OR[95%CI]/yr after diagnosis 0.50[0.31,0.82]) and was not associated with age of onset, duration or gender. Rheumatoid factor (13/57; 23%), smooth muscle (6/57; 11%), gastric-parietal cell (5/57; 9%) and thyroid microsomal antibodies (5/57; 9%) were the most frequent non-diabetes associated autoantibodies and were more common in patients with type 1A diabetes. Only one patient had clinical autoimmune disease (hypothyroidism). Type 1A diabetes may constitute up to half the cases of newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes in Jamaican youth and is associated with a higher prevalence of other organ-specific autoantibodies.

Knowledge, motivation and barriers to diabetes control in adults in Jamaica / Conocimientos, motivación, y obstáculos en relación con el control de la diabetes de adultos en Jamaica

In this descriptive study, individual structured interviews were conducted on a random sample of 35 men and 98 women from a population (n = 510) of clinic patients. Open questions sought to determine the extent of knowledge, motivation and barriers to lifestyle changes for control of diabetes mellitus (DM) in Jamaican adults. These were coded into themes and described. Other data were analysed using SPSS. Men (61.8 +/- 14.8 years) were older than women (54.9 +/- 13.7 years) and demonstrated less knowledge (p = 0.006). The respondents (71%) indicated the need for more education. Barriers to lifestyle changes and glycaemic control included a low education level (64%), inadequate knowledge (80%), lack of perceived risk (80.4%) and lack of self-monitoring (93%). Only 23% were controlled to HbA1c < or = 6.5%. The patients' reference to the physicians as a primary source of information indicated the need for a collaborative team approach, and the incorporation of diabetes education as an indispensable service at this clinic.

En este estudio descriptivo, se realizaron entrevistas estructuradas individuales a una muestra aleatoria de 35 hombres y 98 mujeres de una población (n = 510) de pacientes clínicos. Las preguntas abiertas buscaban determinar la extensión de los conocimientos, la motivación, y los obstáculos a los cambios en el estilo de vida para el control de la diabetes mellitus (DM) en adultos jamaicanos. Estas fueron codificadas en forma de temas, y descritas. Otros datos fueron analizados usando el paquete estadístico SPSS. Los hombres (61.8 ±14.8 años) fueron mayores que las mujeres (54.9 ± 13.7 años) y demostraron menos conocimientos (p = 0.006). Los respondientes (71%) indicaron la necesidad de más educación. Los obstáculos a los cambios en el estilo de vida y el control glicémico, incluyeron un bajo nivel educacional (64%), conocimientos inadecuados (80%), falta de percepción de riesgos (80.4%) y falta de auto-monitoreo (93%). Sólo el 23% se mantenían bajo un control de HbA1c # 6.5%. La referencia de los pacientes a los médicos como fuente primaria de información indicó la necesidad de un enfoque colaborativo en equipo, y de la incorporación de la educación para la diabetes como un servicio indispensable en esta clínica.

Self-care, compliance and glycaemic control in Jamaican adults with diabetes mellitus / Autocuidado, cumplimiento y control glicémico en los adultos jamaicanos con diabetes mellitus

Appropriate self-care practices, including nutrition and medication compliance, are essential to satisfactory control of diabetes mellitus (DM). This descriptive study assesses self-care practices, and their relationships to glycaemic control in adults with DM in Jamaica. A pre-tested structured interview and anthropometric measurements were carried out on 98 women and 35 men, randomly selected from a population (n = 510) of adult clinic patients. HbA1c was used as the index of glycaemic control. Self-care practice scores indicated the extent of compliance with appropriate lifestyle practices. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Men (median age, 62 years) were significantly older (z = -2.64, p = 0.008) than the women (55 years). The median duration of DM was: men, seven years; women: 10.5 years. Sixty-nine per cent were being treated with insulin. Only 45reported full compliance with medications. Their median body mass index (BMI) was 29.1, (16.6-47.4) kg/m2. Eighty-one per cent were overweight or obese. Forty-six per cent described diet and/or obesity as contributing to their diabetes. Eighty-five per cent had consulted a dietitian but only 56.4reported being on a [quot ]special diet[quot ]. Only 16.5reported not taking any sugar. Self-care scores were inversely related to HbA1c(p = 0.008), BMI (p = 0.001), sugar intake (p = 0.005) and were lowest in the area of weight control and exercise. Only 23had blood glucose controlled to HbA1c < or = 6.5. In women, HbA1clevels were inversely related to compliance with medication (p = 0.004). Glycaemic control in adults with diabetes mellitus is related to their self-care practices, especially weight control, exercise and medication compliance.

Las prácticas apropiadas de autocuidado, incluyendo cumplir con los requerimientos de la nutrición y la medicación, son esenciales para el control satisfactorio de la diabetes mellitus (DM). Este estudio descriptivo evalúa las prácticas de autocuidado, y sus relaciones con el control glicémico en adultos con DM en Jamaica. Una entrevista estructurada, previamente probada, así como mediciones antropométricas, fueron llevadas a cabo en 98 mujeres y 35 hombres, seleccionados aleatoriamente de una población (n = 510) de pacientes de una clínica de adultos. La prueba HbA1c se usó como índice de control glicémico. Las puntuaciones de la práctica de autocontrol indicaron el grado de conformidad con prácticas de estilo de vida apropiadas. Los datos fueron analizados utilizando el denominado Paquete Estadístico para la Ciencias Sociales (SPSS). Los hombres (edad mediana, 62 años) eran significativamente mayores (z = -2.64, p = 0.008) que las mujeres (55 años). La duración mediana de la DM fue como sigue: los hombres, siete años; las mujeres 10.5 años. El sesenta y nueve por ciento fue tratado con insulina. Sólo el 45% reportó cumplimiento total con los medicamentos. El índice de la masa mediana de su cuerpo (BMI) fue 29.1 (16.6–47.4) kg/m. El ochenta y uno por ciento resultaró estar por encima del peso o ser obesos. El cuarenta y seis por ciento describió la dieta y/o la obesidad como factores que contribuían a su diabetes. El ochenta y cinco por ciento había consultado a un dietista, pero sólo el 56.4% reportó estar haciendo una "dieta especial". Sólo el 16.5% reportó no estar ingiriendo azúcar ninguna. Las puntuaciones de autocuidados se hallaron en proporción inversa al por ciento resultante de la prueba HbA1c% (p = 0.008), BMI (p = 0.001), ingestión de azúcar (p = 0.005) y fueron los más bajos en el área de control de peso y ejercicios. Sólo el 23% tenía la glucosa en sangre controlada en correspondencia con HbA1c # 6.5%. En las mujeres, los niveles de...

Knowledge, motivation and barriers to diabetes control in adults in Jamaica.

In this descriptive study, individual structured interviews were conducted on a random sample of 35 men and 98 women from a population (n = 510) of clinic patients. Open questions sought to determine the extent of knowledge, motivation and barriers to lifestyle changes for control of diabetes mellitus (DM) in Jamaican adults. These were coded into themes and described. Other data were analysed using SPSS. Men (61.8 +/- 14.8 years) were older than women (54.9 +/- 13.7 years) and demonstrated less knowledge (p = 0.006). The respondents (71%) indicated the need for more education. Barriers to lifestyle changes and glycaemic control included a low education level (64%), inadequate knowledge (80%), lack of perceived risk (80.4%) and lack of self-monitoring (93%). Only 23% were controlled to HbA1c < or = 6.5%. The patients' reference to the physicians as a primary source of information indicated the need for a collaborative team approach, and the incorporation of diabetes education as an indispensable service at this clinic.

Self-care, compliance and glycaemic control in Jamaican adults with diabetes mellitus.

Appropriate self-care practices, including nutrition and medication compliance, are essential to satisfactory control of diabetes mellitus (DM). This descriptive study assesses self-care practices, and their relationships to glycaemic control in adults with DM in Jamaica. A pre-tested structured interview and anthropometric measurements were carried out on 98 women and 35 men, randomly selected from a population (n = 510) of adult clinic patients. HbA1c was used as the index of glycaemic control. Self-care practice scores indicated the extent of compliance with appropriate lifestyle practices. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Men (median age, 62 years) were significantly older (z = -2.64, p = 0.008) than the women (55 years). The median duration of DM was: men, seven years; women: 10.5 years. Sixty-nine per cent were being treated with insulin. Only 45% reported full compliance with medications. Their median body mass index (BMI) was 29.1, (16.6-47.4) kg/m2. Eighty-one per cent were overweight or obese. Forty-six per cent described diet and/or obesity as contributing to their diabetes. Eighty-five per cent had consulted a dietitian but only 56.4% reported being on a "special diet". Only 16.5% reported not taking any sugar. Self-care scores were inversely related to HbA1c% (p = 0.008), BMI (p = 0.001), sugar intake (p = 0.005) and were lowest in the area of weight control and exercise. Only 23% had blood glucose controlled to HbA1c < or = 6.5%. In women, HbA1c% levels were inversely related to compliance with medication (p = 0.004). Glycaemic control in adults with diabetes mellitus is related to their self-care practices, especially weight control, exercise and medication compliance.

The influence of persistent hyperglycaemia on hyperfibrinogenaemia and hyperviscosity in diabetes mellitus

The effect of hyperglycaemia on hyperfibrinogenaemia and its consequence on plasma viscosity was investigated in 69 diabetic patients during the course of hypoglycaemic treatment. Glycaemic control was assessed by measurement of glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1). Plasma fibrinogen concentration (PFC) was determined by a clot-weight method. The relative plasma viscosity (RPV) was measured by capillary viscometry. The mean PFC and RPV were significantly (p < 0.001) elevated in the diabetic patients as compared with a non-diabetic control group. Both PFC and RPV showed a distinct, step-wise increase with progressively poorer glycaemic control. The data strongly indicate that persistent hyperglycaemia is associated with a frank hyperfibrinogenaemia and hyperviscous plasma in most of the diabetic patients studied. These abnormal haemorrheological changes could impact adversely on both the haemostatic process and circulation in diabetic patients.

The influence of persistent hyperglycaemia on hyperfibrinogenaemia and hyperviscosity in diabetes mellitus.

The effect of hyperglycaemia on hyperfibrinogenaemia and its consequence on plasma viscosity was investigated in 69 diabetic patients during the course of hypoglycaemic treatment. Glycaemic control was assessed by measurement of glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1). Plasma fibrinogen concentration (PFC) was determined by a clot-weight method. The relative plasma viscosity (RPV) was measured by capillary viscometry. The mean PFC and RPV were significantly (p < 0.001) elevated in the diabetic patients as compared with a non-diabetic control group. Both PFC and RPV showed a distinct, step-wise increase with progressively poorer glycaemic control. The data strongly indicate that persistent hyperglycaemia is associated with a frank hyperfibrinogenaemia and hyperviscous plasma in most of the diabetic patients studied. These abnormal haemorrheological changes could impact adversely on both the haemostatic process and circulation in diabetic patients.