ABSTRACT
Nicotinic acid (niacin) induces beneficial changes in serum lipoproteins and has been associated with beneficial cardiovascular effects. Niacin reduces low-density lipoprotein, increases high-density lipoprotein, and decreases triglycerides. It is well established that activation of the seven-transmembrane G(i)-coupled receptor GPR109A on Langerhans cells results in release of prostaglandin D2, which mediates the well-known flushing side effect of niacin. Niacin activation of GPR109A on adipocytes also mediates the transient reduction of plasma free fatty acid (FFA) levels characteristic of niacin, which has been long hypothesized to be the mechanism underlying the changes in the serum lipid profile. We tested this "FFA hypothesis" and the hypothesis that niacin lipid efficacy is mediated via GPR109A by dosing mice lacking GPR109A with niacin and testing two novel, full GPR109A agonists, MK-1903 and SCH900271, in three human clinical trials. In mice, the absence of GPR109A had no effect on niacin's lipid efficacy despite complete abrogation of the anti-lipolytic effect. Both MK-1903 and SCH900271 lowered FFAs acutely in humans; however, neither had the expected effects on serum lipids. Chronic FFA suppression was not sustainable via GPR109A agonism with niacin, MK-1903, or SCH900271. We conclude that the GPR109A receptor does not mediate niacin's lipid efficacy, challenging the long-standing FFA hypothesis.
Subject(s)
Fatty Acids/metabolism , Niacin/pharmacology , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism , Receptors, Nicotinic/metabolism , Animals , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Fatty Acids/blood , Humans , Lipolysis/drug effects , Lipoproteins/blood , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Niacin/administration & dosage , Pyrazoles/pharmacology , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonistsABSTRACT
Biaryl cyclohexene carboxylic acids were discovered as full and potent niacin receptor (GPR109A) agonists. Compound 1e (MK-6892) displayed excellent receptor activity, good PK across species, remarkably clean off-target profiles, good ancillary pharmacology, and superior therapeutic window over niacin regarding the FFA reduction versus vasodilation in rats and dogs.
Subject(s)
Carboxylic Acids/pharmacology , Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acids/pharmacology , Cyclohexenes/chemistry , Drug Discovery , Oxadiazoles/pharmacology , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonists , Animals , Area Under Curve , Binding, Competitive , CHO Cells , Carboxylic Acids/chemistry , Carboxylic Acids/pharmacokinetics , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acids/chemistry , Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acids/pharmacokinetics , Dogs , Drug Evaluation, Preclinical , Fatty Acids, Nonesterified/blood , Humans , Metabolic Clearance Rate , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Models, Chemical , Molecular Structure , Oxadiazoles/chemistry , Oxadiazoles/pharmacokinetics , Rats , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism , Receptors, Nicotinic/genetics , Receptors, Nicotinic/metabolism , Structure-Activity Relationship , Vasodilation/drug effectsABSTRACT
Tricyclic analogues were rationally designed as the high affinity niacin receptor G-protein-coupled receptor 109A (GPR109A) agonists by overlapping three lead structures. Various tricyclic anthranilide and cycloalkene carboxylic acid full agonists were discovered with excellent in vitro activity. Compound 2g displayed a good therapeutic index regarding free fatty acids (FFA) reduction and vasodilation effects in rats, with very weak cytochrome P450 2C8 (CYP2C8) and cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) inhibition, and a good mouse pharmacokinetics (PK) profile.
Subject(s)
Cycloparaffins/chemical synthesis , Flushing/chemically induced , Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring/chemical synthesis , Hypolipidemic Agents/chemical synthesis , Niacin/metabolism , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonists , ortho-Aminobenzoates/chemical synthesis , Adipocytes/drug effects , Adipocytes/metabolism , Animals , CHO Cells , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , Cycloparaffins/adverse effects , Cycloparaffins/pharmacology , Ear/blood supply , Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring/adverse effects , Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring/pharmacology , Humans , Hypolipidemic Agents/adverse effects , Hypolipidemic Agents/pharmacology , In Vitro Techniques , Lipolysis , Male , Mice , Radioligand Assay , Rats , Receptors, Nicotinic , Structure-Activity Relationship , Vasodilation/drug effects , ortho-Aminobenzoates/adverse effects , ortho-Aminobenzoates/pharmacologyABSTRACT
Biaryl anthranilides are reported as potent and selective full agonists for the high affinity niacin receptor GPR109A. The SAR presented outlines approaches to reduce serum shift and both CYPCYP2C8 and CYP2C9 liabilities, while improving PK and maintaining excellent receptor activity. Compound 2i exhibited good in vivo antilipolytic efficacy while providing a significantly improved therapeutic index over vasodilation (flushing) with respect to niacin in the mouse model.
Subject(s)
Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonists , ortho-Aminobenzoates/chemical synthesis , Amides/chemical synthesis , Amides/pharmacokinetics , Amides/pharmacology , Animals , Aryl Hydrocarbon Hydroxylases/antagonists & inhibitors , Binding, Competitive , CHO Cells , Cricetinae , Cricetulus , Cytochrome P-450 CYP2C8 , Cytochrome P-450 CYP2C9 , Humans , In Vitro Techniques , Mice , Microsomes, Liver/metabolism , Radioligand Assay , Receptors, Nicotinic , Structure-Activity Relationship , ortho-Aminobenzoates/pharmacokinetics , ortho-Aminobenzoates/pharmacologyABSTRACT
A urea class of high affinity niacin receptor agonists was discovered. Compound 1a displayed good PK, better in vivo efficacy in reducing FFA in mouse than niacin, and no vasodilation in a mouse model. Compound 1q demonstrated equal affinity to GPR109A as niacin.
Subject(s)
Niacin/pharmacology , Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonists , Urea , Animals , Combinatorial Chemistry Techniques , Humans , Male , Mice , Models, Animal , Molecular Structure , Receptors, Nicotinic , Structure-Activity Relationship , Urea/analogs & derivatives , Urea/chemical synthesis , Urea/chemistry , Urea/pharmacokinetics , Vasodilation/drug effectsABSTRACT
Nicotinic acid (NA) is commonly used to treat dyslipidemia, but it elicits an adverse effect, termed flushing, which consists of cutaneous vasodilation with associated discomfort. An animal model of NA-induced flushing has been established in mice. As in humans, NA stimulated vasodilation in a dose-dependent manner, was associated with an increase of the vasodilatory prostaglandin (PG) D2 in plasma and could be blocked by pretreatment with aspirin. Two PGD2 receptors have been identified: PGD2 receptor 1 (DP1, also called DP) and PGD2 receptor 2 (DP2, sometimes termed CRTH2). DP2 does not mediate NA-induced vasodilation; the DP2-specific agonist DK-PGD2 (13,14-dihydro-15-keto-PGD2) did not induce cutaneous vasodilation, and DP2-/- mice had a normal vasodilatory response to NA. By contrast, BW245C, a DP1-selective agonist, induced vasodilation in mice, and MK-0524, a DP1-selective antagonist, blocked both PGD2- and NA-induced vasodilation. NA-induced vasodilation was also studied in DP1+/+, DP1+/-, and DP1-/- mice; although NA-induced vasodilation depended almost completely on DP1 in female mice, it depended only partially on DP1 in male mice. The residual NA-induced vasodilation in male DP-/- mice was aspirin-sensitive. Thus, in the mouse, DP1 appears to be an important component involved in NA-induced vasodilation, but other cyclooxygenase-dependent mechanisms also may be involved. A clinical study in healthy men and women demonstrated that treatment with MK-0524 reduced the symptoms of flushing and the increase in skin perfusion after the administration of NA. These studies suggest that DP1 receptor antagonism may be an effective means to suppress NA-induced flushing in humans.
Subject(s)
Niacin/pharmacology , Receptors, Immunologic/antagonists & inhibitors , Receptors, Prostaglandin/antagonists & inhibitors , Vasodilation/drug effects , Vasodilation/physiology , Adolescent , Adult , Animals , Aspirin/pharmacology , Female , Flushing/drug therapy , Flushing/physiopathology , Humans , Hydantoins/pharmacology , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Middle Aged , Prostaglandin D2/analogs & derivatives , Prostaglandin D2/pharmacology , Prostaglandin-Endoperoxide Synthases/physiology , Receptors, Immunologic/agonists , Receptors, Immunologic/deficiency , Receptors, Immunologic/genetics , Receptors, Prostaglandin/agonists , Receptors, Prostaglandin/deficiency , Receptors, Prostaglandin/geneticsABSTRACT
Diabetes mellitus is one of the major risk factors associated with atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease but the mechanistic links between the disease and atherosclerosis are not well understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of the deletion of the long-form leptin receptor on the progression of atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mouse. ApoE-/-;db/db double knockout mice as well as ApoE-/-;db/+ and ApoE-/- littermates were generated by crossing ApoE-/- and db/+ mice. On a regular chow diet, ApoE-/-;db/db mice at 20 weeks of age exhibited features typical of type 2 diabetes: obesity, hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia and had significantly accelerated atherosclerosis compared with their age-matched ApoE-/- littermates as assessed by either the percentage of the aorta bearing lesion (5.3+/-0.9% for ApoE-/-;db/db versus 1.5+/-0.5% for ApoE-/-) or by aortic lipid content ( approximately 1.5-2-fold increase in free cholesterol and approximately 3-4-fold increase in cholesteryl ester). The atherosclerosis in these ApoE-/-;db/db mice was further accelerated by feeding mice with a Western diet and markedly inhibited by fenofibrate with a 2.5- and 5.3-fold reduction of the lesion in male and female mice, respectively. The results from this study demonstrate that type 2 diabetes can accelerate atherogenesis in mice. This mouse model may provide insight into the mechanistic link between type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis as well as serve as a valuable tool for evaluating therapeutics.
Subject(s)
Apolipoproteins E/genetics , Atherosclerosis/genetics , Disease Models, Animal , Hypercholesterolemia/genetics , Mice, Knockout , Receptors, Cell Surface/genetics , Animals , Atherosclerosis/pathology , Atherosclerosis/physiopathology , Cholesterol/blood , Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/genetics , Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/physiopathology , Diabetic Angiopathies/genetics , Diabetic Angiopathies/pathology , Diabetic Angiopathies/physiopathology , Female , Fenofibrate/pharmacology , Hypercholesterolemia/drug therapy , Hypercholesterolemia/physiopathology , Hypolipidemic Agents/pharmacology , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Receptors, Leptin , Severity of Illness IndexABSTRACT
As a treatment for dyslipidemia, oral doses of 1-3 grams of nicotinic acid per day lower serum triglycerides, raise high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and reduce mortality from coronary heart disease (Tavintharan, S., and Kashyap, M. L. (2001) Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 3, 74-82). These benefits likely result from the ability of nicotinic acid to inhibit lipolysis in adipocytes and thereby reduce serum non-esterified fatty acid levels (Carlson, L. A. (1963) Acta Med. Scand. 173, 719-722). In mice, nicotinic acid inhibits lipolysis via PUMA-G, a Gi/o-coupled seven-transmembrane receptor expressed in adipocytes and activated macrophages (Tunaru, S., Kero, J., Schaub, A., Wufka, C., Blaukat, A., Pfeffer, K., and Offermanns, S. (2003) Nat. Med. 9, 352-355). The human ortholog HM74a is also a nicotinic acid receptor and likely has a similar role in anti-lipolysis. Endogenous levels of nicotinic acid are too low to significantly impact receptor activity, hence the natural ligands(s) of HM74a/PUMA-G remain to be elucidated. Here we show that the fatty acid-derived ketone body (D)-beta-hydroxybutyrate ((D)-beta-OHB) specifically activates PUMA-G/HM74a at concentrations observed in serum during fasting. Like nicotinic acid, (D)-beta-OHB inhibits mouse adipocyte lipolysis in a PUMA-G-dependent manner and is thus the first endogenous ligand described for this orphan receptor. These findings suggests a homeostatic mechanism for surviving starvation in which (D)-beta-OHB negatively regulates its own production, thereby preventing ketoacidosis and promoting efficient use of fat stores.
Subject(s)
3-Hydroxybutyric Acid/pharmacology , Adipocytes/metabolism , Lipolysis/drug effects , Nicotinic Agonists/pharmacology , Receptors, Nicotinic/drug effects , Animals , Cell Line , Feedback, Physiological , Humans , Hyperlipidemias/drug therapy , Hypolipidemic Agents/pharmacology , Ligands , Mice , Receptors, G-Protein-CoupledABSTRACT
A series of 2-arylindoles containing novel heteroaromatic substituents on the tryptamine tether, based on compound 1, was prepared and evaluated for their ability to act as gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonists. Successful modifications of 1 included chain length variation (reduction) and replacement of the pyridine with heteroaromatic groups. These alterations culminated in the discovery of compound 27kk which had excellent in vitro potency and oral efficacy in rodents.
