Augmin complex activity finetunes dendrite morphology through non-centrosomal microtubule nucleation in vivo.

During development, neurons achieve a stereotyped neuron type-specific morphology, which relies on dynamic support by microtubules (MTs). An important player is the augmin complex (hereafter augmin), which binds to existing MT filaments and recruits the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC), to form branched MTs. In cultured neurons, augmin is important for neurite formation. However, little is known about the role of augmin during neurite formation in vivo. Here, we have revisited the role of mammalian augmin in culture and then turned towards the class four Drosophila dendritic arborization (c4da) neurons. We show that MT density is maintained through augmin in cooperation with the γ-TuRC in vivo. Mutant c4da neurons show a reduction of newly emerging higher-order dendritic branches and in turn also a reduced number of their characteristic space-filling higher-order branchlets. Taken together, our data reveal a cooperative function for augmin with the γ-TuRC in forming enough MTs needed for the appropriate differentiation of morphologically complex dendrites in vivo.

Genetic contribution to microglial activation in schizophrenia.

Several lines of evidence indicate the involvement of neuroinflammatory processes in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia (SCZ). Microglia are brain resident immune cells responding toward invading pathogens and injury-related products, and additionally, have a critical role in improving neurogenesis and synaptic functions. Aberrant activation of microglia in SCZ is one of the leading hypotheses for disease pathogenesis, but due to the lack of proper human cell models, the role of microglia in SCZ is not well studied. We used monozygotic twins discordant for SCZ and healthy individuals to generate human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived microglia to assess the transcriptional and functional differences in microglia between healthy controls, affected twins and unaffected twins. The microglia from affected twins had increased expression of several common inflammation-related genes compared to healthy individuals. Microglia from affected twins had also reduced response to interleukin 1 beta (IL1ß) treatment, but no significant differences in migration or phagocytotic activity. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) showed abnormalities related to extracellular matrix signaling. RNA sequencing predicted downregulation of extracellular matrix structure constituent Gene Ontology (GO) terms and hepatic fibrosis pathway activation that were shared by microglia of both affected and unaffected twins, but the upregulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II receptors was observed only in affected twin microglia. Also, the microglia of affected twins had heterogeneous response to clozapine, minocycline, and sulforaphane treatments. Overall, despite the increased expression of inflammatory genes, we observed no clear functional signs of hyperactivation in microglia from patients with SCZ. We conclude that microglia of the patients with SCZ have gene expression aberrations related to inflammation response and extracellular matrix without contributing to increased microglial activation.

The contribution of ß-amyloid, Tau and α-synuclein to blood-brain barrier damage in neurodegenerative disorders.

Central nervous system (CNS) accumulation of fibrillary deposits made of Amyloid ß (Aß), hyperphosphorylated Tau or α-synuclein (α-syn), present either alone or in the form of mixed pathology, characterizes the most common neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) as well as the aging brain. Compelling evidence supports that acute neurological disorders, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke, are also accompanied by increased deposition of toxic Aß, Tau and α-syn species. While the contribution of these pathological proteins to neurodegeneration has been experimentally ascertained, the cellular and molecular mechanisms driving Aß, Tau and α-syn-related brain damage remain to be fully clarified. In the last few years, studies have shown that Aß, Tau and α-syn may contribute to neurodegeneration also by inducing and/or promoting blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. These pathological proteins can affect BBB integrity either directly by affecting key BBB components such as pericytes and endothelial cells (ECs) or indirectly, by promoting brain macrophages activation and dysfunction. Here, we summarize and critically discuss key findings showing how Aß, Tau and α-syn can contribute to BBB damage in most common NDDs, TBI and stroke. We also highlight the need for a deeper characterization of the role of these pathological proteins in the activation and dysfunction of brain macrophages, pericytes and ECs to improve diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic neurological disorders.

KI Essence extract (a spleen-tonifying formula) promotes neurite outgrowth, alleviates oxidative stress and hypomyelination, and modulates microbiome in maternal immune activation offspring.

Mushrooms and Chinese traditional herbs have bioactive nutraceuticals with multiple therapeutic functions, including antioxidant and antibacterial activities and microbiome modulation properties. Mushroom-derived bioactive compounds are used in medicines for the treatment of neurological disorders with abnormal brain-gut-microbiome axis. This study examined the effects of KI Essence extract, a spleen-tonifying formula, on neurite growth, antioxidant activity, hypomyelination modulation, and the microbiome profile in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced maternal immune activation (MIA) offspring. The KI Essence extract induced PC12 cell neurite growth by increasing extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation, promoting 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity, reducing the level of tert-butylhydroperoxide-induced lipid peroxidation in brain homogenates, protecting PC12 cells from H2O2-induced cell death (through the inhibition of ERK phosphorylation), alleviating hypomyelination, and downregulating interleukin-1ß through LPS-activated microglia production; moreover, the numbers of Enterobacteriaceae, Actinobacteria, Peptostreptococcaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae, and Bifidobacterium bacteria in MIA offspring increased. In summary, the KI Essence extract promotes neurite outgrowth, alleviates oxidative stress and hypomyelination, and modulates microbiota dysbiosis in MIA offspring.

Contribution of astrocytes to familial risk and clinical manifestation of schizophrenia.

Previous studies have implicated several brain cell types in schizophrenia (SCZ), but the genetic impact of astrocytes is unknown. Considering their high complexity in humans, astrocytes are likely key determinants of neurodevelopmental diseases, such as SCZ. Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived astrocytes differentiated from five monozygotic twin pairs discordant for SCZ and five healthy subjects were studied for alterations related to high genetic risk and clinical manifestation of SCZ in astrocyte transcriptomics, neuron-astrocyte co-cultures, and in humanized mice. We found gene expression and signaling pathway alterations related to synaptic dysfunction, inflammation, and extracellular matrix components in SCZ astrocytes, and demyelination in SCZ astrocyte transplanted mice. While Ingenuity Pathway Analysis identified SCZ disease and synaptic transmission pathway changes in SCZ astrocytes, the most consistent findings were related to collagen and cell adhesion associated pathways. Neuronal responses to glutamate and GABA differed between astrocytes from control persons, affected twins, and their unaffected co-twins and were normalized by clozapine treatment. SCZ astrocyte cell transplantation to the mouse forebrain caused gene expression changes in synaptic dysfunction and inflammation pathways of mouse brain cells and resulted in behavioral changes in cognitive and olfactory functions. Differentially expressed transcriptomes and signaling pathways related to synaptic functions, inflammation, and especially collagen and glycoprotein 6 pathways indicate abnormal extracellular matrix composition in the brain as one of the key characteristics in the etiology of SCZ.

Blood-Brain Barrier and Neurodegenerative Diseases-Modeling with iPSC-Derived Brain Cells.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) regulates the delivery of oxygen and important nutrients to the brain through active and passive transport and prevents neurotoxins from entering the brain. It also has a clearance function and removes carbon dioxide and toxic metabolites from the central nervous system (CNS). Several drugs are unable to cross the BBB and enter the CNS, adding complexity to drug screens targeting brain disorders. A well-functioning BBB is essential for maintaining healthy brain tissue, and a malfunction of the BBB, linked to its permeability, results in toxins and immune cells entering the CNS. This impairment is associated with a variety of neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Here, we summarize current knowledge about the BBB in neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, we focus on recent progress of using human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived models to study the BBB. We review the potential of novel stem cell-based platforms in modeling the BBB and address advances and key challenges of using stem cell technology in modeling the human BBB. Finally, we highlight future directions in this area.

Chinese herbal medicine SS-1 inhibits T cell activation and abrogates TH responses in Sjögren's syndrome.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is an autoimmune disease and its conventional treatment has exhibited limited therapeutic efficacy. Traditional Chinese medicine has been demonstrated to ameliorate the sicca symptoms of SS by decreasing the level of TH1 and TH2 cytokines and increasing salivary flow rate. A newly designed traditional Chinese medicine, SS-1, showed improved efficacy in alleviating the dryness symptoms of SS patients in the National Taiwan SS cohort investigation. Here, we investigated the effect of SS-1 on T cell responses. METHODS: SS-1 was authenticated and its major compounds were verified by high-performance liquid chromatography. We examined the effects of SS-1 on the activation and TH1, TH2, and TH17 polarization of murine T cells. We also determined the level of TH1, TH2, and TH17 cytokine RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of SS patients before and after SS-1 treatment. RESULTS: SS-1 treatment inhibits the activation and TH1, TH2, and IL-17A+IFNγ+ TH polarization of murine T cells. SS-1 treatment also significantly reduces IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-13 expression, and moderately reduces IL-17A expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of SS patients. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that SS-1 inhibits T cell activation and diminishes TH1, TH2, and IL-17+IFN-γ+ TH responses in SS patients.

Generation of a human induced pluripotent stem cell line (UEFi003-A) carrying heterozygous A673T variant in amyloid precursor protein associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease.

A673T mutation in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a rare variant associated with a reduced risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) and age-related cognitive decline. The A673T mutation decreases beta-amyloid (Aß) production and aggregation in neuronal cultures in vitro. Here we have identified a Finnish non-diseased male individual carrying a heterozygous A673T mutation, obtained a skin biopsy sample from him, and generated an iPSC line using commercially available integration-free Sendai virus-based kit. The established iPSC line retained the mutation, expressed pluripotency markers, had a normal karyotype, and differentiated into all three germ layers in vitro.

Ga-doped TiZnO transparent conductive oxide used as an alternative anode in blue, green, and red phosphorescent OLEDs.

X-ray diffraction was used to study the optoelectronic characteristics of Ga-doped TiZnO (GTZO) thin film and revealed increased crystallinity with annealing temperatures ranging from as-grown to 450 °C. The low thin film resistivity of 6.1 × 10(-4) Ω cm and the average high optical transmittance of 93% in the wavelength range between 350 and 800 nm make GTZO an alternative candidate for application in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). Both GTZO and indium-tin-oxide (ITO) anodes are employed for the successful fabrication of blue, green, and red phosphorescent OLEDs. The similar device electrical characteristics observed could be interpreted as evidence of the effectiveness of doping Ga in TiZnO. The simplified tri-layer blue, green, and red phosphorescent OLEDs demonstrated high performance with respective maximum efficiencies of 19.0%, 14.5%, and 9.1%, representing an improvement over ITO-based OLEDs. Furthermore, the OLEDs with the GTZO anode exhibited superior performance at higher current densities, demonstrating high potential for OLED display and lighting applications.

Evaluation of DNA extraction methods and dilution treatment for detection and quantification of Acanthamoeba in water and biofilm by real-time PCR.

Acanthamoeba, human pathogens and natural hosts of pathogenic bacteria, may be accurately detected and quantified by real-time PCR if Acanthamoeba DNA are properly extracted and PCR inhibitors are effectively eliminated. However, the optimization of DNA extraction methods has not been reported for Acanthamoeba. This study compared the effectiveness of two DNA extraction/purification methods (FastDNA(®) Spin Kit for soil and Wizard(®) SV genomic DNA Purification System) by using trophozoites and cysts of Acanthamoeba castellanii and water and biofilm samples of cooling towers. DNA of A. castellanii extracted with the FastDNA(®) Kit and quantified by TaqMan PCR resulted in a lower variation (CV of Ct < 3%), greater linearity (R(2)=0.99), and higher slopes (1.177-1.187 log fg DNA/log cell number) as compared to that by the Wizard(®) Kit. For field testing, the number of Acanthamoeba-positive samples and the Acanthamoeba DNA quantity were both greater with the FastDNA(®) Kit than with the Wizard(®) Kit (P=0.016 and <0.0001, respectively). Beneficial effects with dilutions of extracted DNA were also revealed with the FastDNA(®) Kit (P=0.0003). In conclusion, DNA extraction by the FastDNA(®) Kit coupled with dilution of extracted DNA and PCR analysis are recommended for detecting and quantifying environmental Acanthamoeba.