Measuring empathy in schizophrenia: The Empathic Accuracy Task and its correlation with other empathy measures.

INTRODUCTION: Empathy is an interpersonal process impaired in schizophrenia. Past studies have mainly used questionnaires or performance-based tasks with static cues to measure cognitive and affective empathy. We used the Empathic Accuracy Task (EAT) designed to capture dynamic aspects of empathy by using videoclips in which perceivers continuously judge emotionally charged stories. We compared individuals with schizophrenia with a healthy comparison group and assessed correlations among EAT and three other commonly used empathy measures. METHOD: Patients (n = 92) and a healthy comparison group (n = 42) matched for age, gender and education completed the EAT, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy and Faux Pas. Differences between groups were analyzed and correlations were calculated between empathy measurement instruments. RESULTS: The groups differed in EAT performance, with the comparison group outperforming patients. A moderating effect was found for emotional expressivity of the target: while both patients and the comparison group scored low when judging targets with low expressivity, the comparison group performed better than patients with more expressive targets. Though there were also group differences on the empathy questionnaires, EAT performance did not correlate with questionnaire scores. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals with schizophrenia benefit less from the emotional expressivity of other people than the comparison group, which contributes to their impaired empathic accuracy. The lack of correlation between the EAT and the questionnaires suggests a distinction between self-report empathy and actual empathy performance. To explore empathic difficulties in real life, it is important to use instruments that take the interpersonal perspective into account.

[Common mental disorders, the psychiatrist and mental health care services]. / Veelvoorkomende psychische aandoeningen, de psychiater en de ggz.

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Metacognitive reflection and insight therapy (MERIT) for patients with schizophrenia.

BACKGROUND: Impaired metacognition is associated with difficulties in the daily functioning of people with psychosis. Metacognition can be divided into four domains: Self-Reflection, Understanding the Other's Mind, Decentration, and Mastery. This study investigated whether Metacognitive Reflection and Insight Therapy (MERIT) can be used to improve metacognition. METHODS: This study is a randomized controlled trial. Patients in the active condition (n = 35) received forty MERIT sessions, the control group (n = 35) received treatment as usual. Multilevel intention-to-treat and completers analyses were performed for metacognition and secondary outcomes (psychotic symptomatology, cognitive insight, Theory of Mind, empathy, depression, self-stigma, quality of life, social functioning, and work readiness). RESULTS: Eighteen out of 35 participants finished treatment, half the drop-out stemmed from therapist attrition (N = 5) or before the first session (N = 4). Intention-to-treat analysis demonstrated that in both groups metacognition improved between pre- and post-measurements, with no significant differences between the groups. Patients who received MERIT continued to improve, while the control group returned to baseline, leading to significant differences at follow-up. Completers analysis (18/35) showed improvements on the Metacognition Assessment Scale (MAS-A) scales Self Reflectivity and metacognitive Mastery at follow-up. No effects were found on secondary outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: On average, participants in the MERIT group were, based on MAS-A scores, at follow-up more likely to recognize their thoughts as changeable rather than as facts. MERIT might be useful for patients whose self-reflection is too limited to benefit from other therapies. Given how no changes were found in secondary measures, further research is needed. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.

[Metacognition in psychotic disorders: from concepts to intervention]. / Metacognitie bij psychotische stoornissen: van concept naar interventie.

BACKGROUND: Persons with a psychotic disorder commonly experience difficulties with what is considered to be metacognitive capacity. In this article we discuss several definitions of this concept, the measurement instruments involved and the clinical interventions that target this concept. AIM: To present a review of various frequently used definitions of metacognition and related concepts and to describe the measurement instruments involved and the treatment options available for improving the metacognitive capacity of persons with a psychotic disorder. METHOD: We present an overview of several definitions of metacognition in psychotic disorders and we discuss frequently used measurement instruments and treatment options. The article focuses on recent developments in a model devised by Semerari et al. The measurement instrument involved (Metacognition Assessment Scale - A) is discussed in terms of it being an addition to existing methods. RESULTS: On the basis of the literature it appears that metacognition and related concepts are measurable constructs, although definitions and instruments vary considerably. The new conceptualisation of social information processing also leads to the development of a new form of psychotherapy that aims to help patients suffering from psychotic disorders to improve metacognitive capacity. CONCLUSION: There seems to be evidence that metacognitive abilities are a possible target for treatment, but further research is needed.

Beyond Clinical Remission in First Episode Psychosis: Thoughts on Antipsychotic Maintenance vs. Guided Discontinuation in the Functional Recovery Era.

Treatment guidelines for first episode psychosis (FEP) recommend at least 1 year of antipsychotic treatment following remission; however, in light of some recent research and the preference of some individuals to discontinue their medication sooner, this recommendation can be questioned. The aim of this article is to appraise the current discontinuation studies given our views on how this field should progress. We conducted a review of randomized controlled trials investigating dose-reduction/medication discontinuation compared with treatment maintenance in clinically remitted FEP patients. Seven trials were identified, and these reported a higher rate of relapse in the dose reduction or discontinuation groups. Relapse rates were higher when a lower threshold for relapse was utilized. However, only three studies specified that concurrent psychosocial interventions were also provided, despite an evidence base for these interventions in reducing symptom severity and relapse. Length of follow-up may also be important, as the study with the longest follow-up (7 years), albeit with some methodological shortcomings, found greater functional recovery in the dose-reduction group and that relapse rates between the two groups (dose-reduction vs. maintenance) were equal after 3 years. Finally, in addition to discontinuation or dose reduction, a diagnosis of schizophrenia, a longer duration of illness, and poor premorbid functioning were associated with a greater risk of relapse. Further trials are needed in this area to establish the long-term risk-benefit ratio of antipsychotic medication in FEP. Meanwhile, young people with FEP who do not fulfil criteria for a diagnosis of a schizophrenia disorder, achieve clinical remission for at least 3 months, attain early functional recovery, and have good social support may be possible candidates for discontinuation of antipsychotic medication bolstered by effective psychosocial interventions provided in the context of a specialized FEP service.

Development of a stage-dependent prognostic model to predict psychosis in ultra-high-risk patients seeking treatment for co-morbid psychiatric disorders.

BACKGROUND: Current ultra-high-risk (UHR) criteria appear insufficient to predict imminent onset of first-episode psychosis, as a meta-analysis showed that about 20% of patients have a psychotic outcome after 2 years. Therefore, we aimed to develop a stage-dependent predictive model in UHR individuals who were seeking help for co-morbid disorders. METHOD: Baseline data on symptomatology, and environmental and psychological factors of 185 UHR patients (aged 14-35 years) participating in the Dutch Early Detection and Intervention Evaluation study were analysed with Cox proportional hazard analyses. RESULTS: At 18 months, the overall transition rate was 17.3%. The final predictor model included five variables: observed blunted affect [hazard ratio (HR) 3.39, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.56-7.35, p < 0.001], subjective complaints of impaired motor function (HR 5.88, 95% CI 1.21-6.10, p = 0.02), beliefs about social marginalization (HR 2.76, 95% CI 1.14-6.72, p = 0.03), decline in social functioning (HR 1.10, 95% CI 1.01-1.17, p = 0.03), and distress associated with suspiciousness (HR 1.02, 95% CI 1.00-1.03, p = 0.01). The positive predictive value of the model was 80.0%. The resulting prognostic index stratified the general risk into three risk classes with significantly different survival curves. In the highest risk class, transition to psychosis emerged on average ⩾8 months earlier than in the lowest risk class. CONCLUSIONS: Predicting a first-episode psychosis in help-seeking UHR patients was improved using a stage-dependent prognostic model including negative psychotic symptoms (observed flattened affect, subjective impaired motor functioning), impaired social functioning and distress associated with suspiciousness. Treatment intensity may be stratified and personalized using the risk stratification.

Social Cognition in Individuals at Ultra-High Risk for Psychosis: A Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Treatment in the ultra-high risk stage for a psychotic episode is critical to the course of symptoms. Markers for the development of psychosis have been studied, to optimize the detection of people at risk of psychosis. One possible marker for the transition to psychosis is social cognition. To estimate effect sizes for social cognition based on a quantitative integration of the published evidence, we conducted a meta-analysis of social cognitive performance in people at ultra high risk (UHR). METHODS: A literature search (1970-July 2015) was performed in PubMed, PsychINFO, Medline, Embase, and ISI Web of Science, using the search terms 'social cognition', 'theory of mind', 'emotion recognition', 'attributional style', 'social knowledge', 'social perception', 'empathy', 'at risk mental state', 'clinical high risk', 'psychosis prodrome', and 'ultra high risk'. The pooled effect size (Cohen's D) and the effect sizes for each domain of social cognition were calculated. A random effects model with 95% confidence intervals was used. RESULTS: Seventeen studies were included in the analysis. The overall significant effect was of medium magnitude (d = 0.52, 95% Cl = 0.38-0.65). No moderator effects were found for age, gender and sample size. Sub-analyses demonstrated that individuals in the UHR phase show significant moderate deficits in affect recognition and affect discrimination in faces as well as in voices and in verbal Theory of Mind (TOM). Due to an insufficient amount of studies, we did not calculate an effect size for attributional bias and social perception/ knowledge. A majority of studies did not find a correlation between social cognition deficits and transition to psychosis, which may suggest that social cognition in general is not a useful marker for the development of psychosis. However some studies suggest the possible predictive value of verbal TOM and the recognition of specific emotions in faces for the transition into psychosis. More research is needed on these subjects. CONCLUSION: The published literature indicates consistent general impairments in social cognition in people in the UHR phase, but only very specific impairments seem to predict transition to psychosis.

[Functional remission of people with serious mental illness (SMI): psychometric properties of a new ROM-instrument]. / Functionele remissie bij mensen met een ernstige psychiatrische aandoening; psychometrische eigenschappen van een nieuw ROM-instrument.

BACKGROUND: Instruments are used for routine outcome monitoring of patients with severe mental illness in order to measure psychiatric symptoms, care needs and quality of life. By adding an instrument for measuring functional remission a more complete picture can be given of the complaints, the symptoms and general functioning, which can give direction to providing care for patients with severe mental illness. AIM: To describe the development and testing of a new instrument of functional remission (FR) among people with a psychotic disorder or another serious mental disorder (SMI) as an addition to the symptomatic remission (SR), according to international criteria. METHOD: The FR-assessment involves assessment by a mental health professional who conducts a semi-structured interview with the patient and his or her family and/or uses patient files relating to the three areas of functioning: daily living and self-care; work, study and housekeeping; and social contacts. These areas are rated on a three-point scale of 0: independent; 1: partially independent; 2: dependent. The assessment covers a period of six months, in accordance with the measurement of symptomatic remission and should be part of regular routine outcome monitoring (ROM) procedures. The FR-instrument was used in 2012 with 840 patients from eight Dutch mental care institutions and included a one-year follow-up among 523 patients (response 62%). RESULTS: The results showed that the instrument is relatively easily to complete. It was also relevant for clinical practice, although further research is needed because of the raters' low response. Intra- and inter-rater reliability, discriminating and convergent validity, and sensitivity to change were rated sufficient to good. CONCLUSION: If the FR-instrument becomes part of regular ROM-procedures and is used as a measure of societal participation, it could be a useful addition to current measures of symptomatic remission.

Cost-effectiveness of preventing first-episode psychosis in ultra-high-risk subjects: multi-centre randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Although there is evidence for the effectiveness of interventions for psychosis among ultra-high-risk (UHR) groups, health economic evaluations are lacking. This study aimed to determine the cost effectiveness and cost-utility of cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) to prevent first-episode psychosis. METHOD: The Dutch Early Detection and Intervention Evaluation study was a randomized controlled trial of 196 UHR patients with an 18-month follow-up. All participants were treated with routine care (RC) for non-psychotic disorders. The experimental group (n = 95) received add-on CBT to prevent first-episode psychosis. We report the intervention, medical and travel costs, as well as costs arising from loss of productivity. Treatment response was defined as psychosis-free survival and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained. RESULTS: In the cost-effectiveness analysis, the proportion of averted psychoses was significantly higher in the CBT condition (89.5% v. 76.2%). CBT showed a 63.7% probability of being more cost effective, because it was less costly than RC by US$844 (£551) per prevented psychosis. In the cost-utility analysis, QALY health gains were slightly higher for CBT than for RC (0.60 v. 0.57) and the CBT intervention had a 52.3% probability of being the superior treatment because, for equal or better QALY gains, the costs of CBT were lower than those of RC. CONCLUSIONS: Add-on preventive CBT for UHR resulted in a significant reduction in the incidence of first psychosis. QALY gains show little difference between the two conditions. The CBT intervention proved to be cost saving.

The influence of adjunctive treatment and metacognitive deficits in schizophrenia on the experience of work.

Enhancing work function is now widely considered a core element of comprehensive schizophrenia treatment. While research efforts have illuminated factors that influence how well patients perform at work, less is known about the factors influencing the subjective experience of work. It is not known how, and to what extent, symptoms, cognitive deficits or metacognitive capacities impact job satisfaction and whether treatment can have an effect on job satisfaction. To explore this issue, data from a trial in which participants in a six-month vocational program were assigned to either a standard support group or a cognitive behavioral group therapy, and asked to fill in weekly self-reports of job satisfaction was analyzed. Work satisfaction and the consistency of these ratings were compared between the two groups and the moderating influence of metacognitive capacity was analyzed. A significant interaction effect revealed that higher metacognitive capacity predicted higher average job satisfaction only in the CBT group. Additionally, higher metacognitive capacity led to a more varied appraisal of work satisfaction only in the support group.

[Contribution to quality of care or caught in a digital labyrinth? Experience with electronic records of patients receiving long-term mental health care]. / Kwaliteitsverbetering of digitaal doolhof? Praktijkervaring met het elektronisch patiëntendossier bij langdurige behandelingen in de ggz.

BACKGROUND: In recent years electronic health records (EHRs) have been introduced on a large scale into mental health care. EHRs have a great number of advantages, one of the main ones being readability. However, very little attention seems to have been paid to the potential disadvantages and risks associated with EHRs. AIM: To point to some of the disadvantages and risks of EHRs, in their present form, particularly in relation to the care of patients with severe mental illness (SMI). METHOD: On the basis of clinical experience and relevant literature, we discuss some of the disadvantages and risks associated with EHRs in their current form. RESULTS: In long-term, multidisciplinary and complex treatments of patients with SMI, EHRs in their current form fail to provide the psychiatrist with an adequate overview of the treatment process. This is largely due to the way they are designed: an ever-increasing quantity of information about complex treatment stored in separate files that can only be accessed individually and that contain free text. In mental health care the introduction of new technology, unlike the introduction of new drugs, seems to occur without structured surveillance of the disadvantages and risks involved. CONCLUSION: EHRs need to be re-designed at the earliest opportunity.

[Psychotic disorders: the need for staging]. / Stagering van psychotische stoornissen.

BACKGROUND: In psychotic disorders it is the stage of development of the disease which mainly determines the prognosis and the effectiveness of treatment. AIM: To describe and to refine the current staging and profiling of psychotic disorders and to propose a way in which to describe the course of dimensions of psychoses. METHOD: We searched the literature for articles relating to the staging of psychotic disorders. RESULTS: McGorry e.a. developed a simple classification into stages which is currently applicable to research and clinical practice. We propose a further refinement in the form of a graph from which one can see in a glance the history of clinically relevant variation. CONCLUSION: Research into the prodromal stages of diseases is needed in order to elucidate the pathophysiological mechanisms that the stages have in common and to reveal the pathways of differential development.

Ethnicity and baseline symptomatology in patients with an At Risk Mental State for psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Ethnicity has been associated with different incidence rates and different symptom profiles in young patients with psychotic-like disorders. No studies so far have examined the effect of ethnicity on symptoms in people with an At Risk Mental State (ARMS). METHOD: In this cross-sectional study, we analysed the relationship between ethnicity and baseline data on the severity of psychopathology scores in 201 help-seeking patients who met the ARMS criteria and agreed to participate in the Dutch Early Detection and Intervention (EDIE-NL) trial. Eighty-seven of these patients had a non-Dutch ethnicity. We explored the possible mediating role of ethnic identity. RESULTS: Higher rates of negative symptoms, and of anhedonia in particular, were found in the ethnic minority group. This result could be attributed mainly to the Moroccan-Dutch and Turkish-Dutch subgroups, who also presented with more depression symptoms when the groups were examined separately. The ethnic minority group displayed a lower level of ethnic group identity compared to the immigrants of the International Comparative Study of Ethnocultural Youth (ICSEY). Ethnic identity was inversely related to symptoms in the Moroccan-Dutch patient group. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of more severe negative symptoms and depression symptoms in ethnic minority groups deserves more attention, as the experience of attenuated positive symptoms when accompanied by negative symptoms or distress has proven to be predictive for transition to a first psychotic episode.

Association of treatment delay, migration and urbanicity in psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Several factors may contribute to duration of untreated psychosis (DUP): patient-delay, referral-delay and treatment-delay caused by mental health care services (MHS-delay). In order to find the most effective interventions to reduce DUP, it is important to know what factors in these pathways to care contribute to DUP. AIM: To examine the relationship of the constituents of treatment delay, migration status and urbanicity. METHOD: In first episode psychotic patients (n=182) from rural, urban and highly urbanized areas, DUP, migration status and pathways to care were determined. RESULTS: Mean DUP was 53.6 weeks (median 8.9, SD=116.8). Patient-delay was significantly longer for patients from highly urbanized areas and for first generation immigrants. MHS-delay was longer for patients who were treated already by MHS for other diagnoses. CONCLUSIONS: Specific interventions are needed focusing on patients living in highly urbanized areas and first generation immigrants in order to shorten patient delay. MHS should improve early detection of psychosis in patients already in treatment for other diagnosis.

[Routine Outcome Monitoring for patients with severe mental illness: a consensus document]. / Routine outcome monitoring voor patiënten met ernstige psychiatrische aandoeningen; een consensusdocument.

BACKGROUND: Routine outcome monitoring (ROM) means the assessment of the patient's condition on a routine basis using instruments. So far there is no consensus about which instruments should be used for ROM with severely mentally ill patients (ROM-SMI). AIM: To reach a consensus about instruments for ROM-SMI in the Netherlands and Belgium and to create possibilities for comparison of ROM data. METHOD: This article discusses the consensus document of the National Remission Working Group for ROM in patients with smi and covers the following topics: reasons for ROM-SMI, domains for ROM-SMI and appropriate instruments, logistics and analyses of the data. RESULTS: Patients with SMI have problems in several domains. These can be assessed by collecting information about psychiatric symptoms, addiction, somatic problems, general functioning, needs, quality of life and care satisfaction. Potential instruments for ROM-SMI are short, valid, reliable and assess several domains, taking the patient's perspective into account, and have been used in national and international research. The working group advises institutions to choose from a limited set of instruments. After the scores have been aggregated and standardised, comparisons can be drawn. ROM-SMI data can be interpreted more meaningfully, if outcome data are supplemented with data regarding patient characteristics and the treatment interventions already applied. CONCLUSION: It should be possible to reach a consensus about instruments for ROM-SMI and the way in which they should be used. The use of identical instruments will lead to improvements in mental health care and create possibilities for comparison (benchmarking) and research.

[The administrative incidence of non-affective psychoses in Friesland and Twente]. / De administratieve incidentie van niet-affectieve psychosen in Friesland en Twente.

BACKGROUND: Research into the risk factors for schizophrenia has once again drawn attention to the geographical differences in the incidence and gender distribution of schizophrenia. The incidence - as recorded by the mental health care services - of non-affective psychotic disorders in the Netherlands is unknown. AIM: To ascertain the mental-health-care recorded incidence of non-affective psychotic disorders in Friesland and Twente in 2002. METHOD: The medical files of all adults who made their first contact with mental health care services in 2002 (n = 6,477) via two clinics in the Netherlands were screened for psychotic symptoms. All patients with psychotic symptoms (n = 242) were included and the clinical diagnosis was recorded. Thirty months later the most recent clinical diagnosis was recorded again. results Within six months of their first contact 75 patients were diagnosed with non-affective disorder. This diagnosis was still valid after 30 months. These results demonstrate an incidence of 2.2/10,000 inhabitants. The male-female ration was 1.8:1. The incidence of psychotic disorder did not differ significantly between the two regions under study. CONCLUSION: The incidence found corresponds to the incidence reported in earlier Dutch studies; it lies on the 75th percentile of the cumulative incidence given in an international review.

Assertive community treatment in the Netherlands: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: Assertive community treatment is rapidly implemented by many European mental health services, but recently the evidence base has been questioned. Positive results of randomized trials in the USA were not replicated in the UK. The question is whether the UK findings are representative for other European countries with modern mental health services. METHOD: Open randomized controlled trial of long-term severely mentally ill patients [Health of the Nation Outcome Scales (HoNOS) total score >or=15], assigned to assertive community treatment (n = 59) or to standard community mental health care (n = 59). PRIMARY OUTCOME: sustained contact; housing stability and admission days. This trial is registered as an International Standard Randomized Clinical Trial, number ISRCTN 11281756. RESULTS: Assertive community treatment was significantly better in sustaining contact with patients, but not in reducing admission days. No differences in housing stability, psychopathology, social functioning or quality of life were found. CONCLUSION: The results are in agreement with UK studies. However, the sustained contact potential of assertive community treatment is important, as too many patients are lost in standard care.

Economic consequences of alternative medication strategies in first episode non-affective psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Maintenance treatment appears to be successful in preventing relapses in first episode psychosis, but is also associated with side effects. Guided discontinuation strategy is a less intrusive intervention, but may lead to more relapses. In the current economic evaluation, costs and health outcomes of discontinuation strategy will be compared with the results of maintenance treatment in patients with remitted first episode psychosis. METHOD: The study was designed as a randomised clinical trial. In total 128 patients were prospectively followed for 18 months after six months of stable remission. The economic evaluation was conducted from a societal perspective. Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were used as primary health outcome in the economic evaluation. Relapse rates were assessed in addition to various other secondary outcomes. RESULTS: There were no relevant differences in mean costs between groups during the study. Total costs were largely influenced by costs related to admissions to psychiatric hospitals. No differences between groups were found for QALY results. CONCLUSIONS: There were no indications that either of the examined interventions is superior to the other in terms of costs or QALY results. Additional results indicated that the relapse rate in discontinuation strategy was twice as high, but without an increase in hospital admissions or negative consequences on other clinical outcomes. For a minority of remitted first episode patients, guided discontinuation strategy may offer a feasible alternative to maintenance treatment.