A semiempirical method for the description of off-center ratios at depth from linear accelerators.

A semiempirical method for the description of the off-center ratios (OCR) at depth from linear accelerators is presented, which is based on a method originally developed for cobalt-60 (60)Co units. The OCR profile is obtained as the sum of 2 components: the first describes an OCR similar to that from a (60)Co unit, which approximates that resulting from the modification of the original x-ray intensity distribution by the flattening filter; the second takes into account the variable effect of the flattening filter on dose profile for different depths and field sizes, by considering the existence of a block and employing the negative field concept. The above method is formulated in a mathematical expression, where the parameters involved are obtained by fitting to the measured OCRs. Using this method, OCRs for various depths and field sizes, from a Philips SL-20 for the 6 MV x-ray beam and a Siemens Primus 23, for both the 6-MV and 23-MV x-ray beams, were reproduced with good accuracy. Furthermore, OCRs for other fields and depths that were not included in the fitting procedure were calculated using linear interpolation to estimate the values of the parameters. The results indicate that this method can be used to calculate OCR profiles for a wide range of depths and field sizes from a measured set of data and may be used for monitor unit calculations for off-axis points using a standard geometry. It may also be useful as a quality control tool to verify the accuracy of lacking profiles calculated by a treatment planning system.

Evaluation of the performance of VIPAR polymer gels using a variety of x-ray and electron beams.

The aim of this investigation was the evaluation of the usefulness of N-vinyl pyrrolidone argon (VIPAR) polymer gel dosimetry for relative dose measurements using the majority of types and energies of radiation beams used in clinical practice. For this reason, VIPAR polymer gels were irradiated with the following beams: 6 and 23 MV photons (maximum dose: 15 Gy) and 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21 MeV electrons (90% dose: 15 Gy). Using 6 MV x-rays, a linear gel dose response was verified for doses up to 20 Gy. Assuming linearity of response for the rest of the photon and electron beams used in this study, percentage depth dose measurements were derived. For all beams used and the range of relative doses studied, a satisfying agreement was observed between percentage depth dose measurements performed using the VIPAR gel-MRI method and an ion chamber, validating the assumption that a linear gel dose response holds for all photon and electron beams studied. VIPAR gels, therefore, can be used for relative dose distribution measurements using photons or electrons of any typical energy used in external radiotherapy applications. It is also demonstrated that two-dimensional dose distribution measurements through an irradiated (9 MeV electrons, 3 cm x 3 cm cone) VIPAR gel volume can be easily obtained.

Dose calculations for asymmetric fields defined by independent collimators using symmetric field data.

Several methods have been developed for the dosimetry of asymmetric radiation fields formed by independently moving collimator jaws. Three of these methods, based on different principles and modified to comply with our set of available data, are utilized for the calculation of asymmetric field dose profiles. All three methods use output factors and per cent depth doses or tissue maximum ratios of symmetric fields. In the first method, calculation of the off-centre ratio (OCR) of the asymmetric field is based on the symmetric field from which the asymmetric is originated, by setting the one jaw in an asymmetrical position. In the second method the OCR of the symmetric field is used for the OCR calculation of the asymmetric field of the same size; whereas the third method does not allow for the asymmetric OCR calculation. The results obtained using data for the 6 MV photon beam of a Philips SL-20 linear accelerator indicate that both the first and second method can accurately reproduce asymmetric field profiles from symmetric field data; the third method does not allow for penumbra reproduction, but it is accurate at the central part of the asymmetric field. The problems encountered in the application of the three methods are reported and their accuracy is compared.

A semiempirical method for the description of relative crossbeam dose profiles at depth from linear accelerators.

A semiempirical method for the calculation of the relative crossbeam dose profiles at depth is described. The parameters required to set up the formulae and their dependence with field size and depth are investigated. Using the above method, measured crossbeam dose profiles at depth from two linear accelerators, Philips (SL-18) and AEC (Therac-6) are reproduced. The results indicate that this method is applicable within a wide range of depths and field sizes.

Theoretical aspects and practical applications of moiré topography.

When a surface is observed at a distance through a parallel line grating which is illuminated by a source of light laterally displaced to the viewing axis, the grating is superimposed on its shadow and this gives rise to a moiré fringe pattern. The fringes represent cross-sections of the surface parallel to the grating plane. The principle of the formation of the contour map has been studied assuming a grating represented by a Fourier series, a source of light represented by a 3D intensity distribution and a viewing aperture of finite dimensions. The experimental system used for illumination and observation of the moiré fringes consists of an equispaced parallel-lined glass grating and two small light sources positioned symmetrically about the imaging device. The arrangement constitutes a 3D imaging system with an accuracy of the order of 1 mm. The technique has been applied in radiotherapy problems such as the design of contour compensators and the measurement of body contours. Moiré patterns have been analysed with the aid of a PDP-8 computer, and have been used to calculate surface areas and volumes such as in breast studies and superficial tumour measurements.

Evaluation of a moiré imaging system.

Moiré fringe techniques can be used to measure surface topography. The factors that affect the formation of the fringes have been assessed theoretically by developing models of gratings and light sources of finite dimensions. In this way the effect of parameters such as the intensity distribution of the light source, the viewing aperture function, the lateral displacement of the source relative to the viewing axis, the viewing distance, the grating spacing and grating ratio have been evaluated. Other factors, related to the physical properties and geometry of the reflecting surface, are also investigated. Suggestions are made for the design of an optimum moiré imaging system.