In situ monitoring of loading and elution processes of cryoprotectants at the single-cell level with Raman spectroscopy.

BACKGROUND: The analysis of cell membrane permeability plays a crucial role in improving the procedures of cell cryopreservation, which will affect the specific parameter settings in loading, removal and cooling processes. However, existing studies have mostly focused on deriving permeability parameters through osmotic theoretical models and cell volume response analysis, and there is still a lack of the direct experimental evidence and analysis at the single-cell level regarding the migration of cryoprotectants. RESULTS: In this work, a side perfusion microfluidics chips combined with Raman spectroscopy system was built to monitor in situ the Raman spectroscopy of extracellular and intracellular solution during loading and elution process with different cryoprotectant solution systems (single and dual component). And it was found that loading a high concentration cryoprotectant solution system through a single elution cycle may result in significant residual protective agent, which can be mitigated by employing a multi-component formula but multiple elution operations are still necessary. Furthermore, the collected spectral signals were marked and analyzed to was perform preliminary relative quantitative analysis. The results showed that the intracellular concentration changes can be accurately quantified by the Raman spectrum and are closely related to the extracellular solution concentration changes. SIGNIFICANCE AND NOVELTY: By using the method of small flow perfusion (≤20 µL/min) in the side microfluidic chip after the gravity sedimentation of cells, the continuous loading and elution process of different cryoprotectants on chip and the spectral acquisition can be realized. The intracellular and extracellular concentrations can be quantified in situ based on the ratio of spectral peak intensities. These results indicate that spectroscopic analysis can be used to effectively monitor intracellular cryoprotectant residues.

Sub-50 nm perovskite-type tantalum-based oxynitride single crystals with enhanced photoactivity for water splitting.

A long-standing trade-off exists between improving crystallinity and minimizing particle size in the synthesis of perovskite-type transition-metal oxynitride photocatalysts via the thermal nitridation of commonly used metal oxide and carbonate precursors. Here, we overcome this limitation to fabricate ATaO2N (A = Sr, Ca, Ba) single nanocrystals with particle sizes of several tens of nanometers, excellent crystallinity and tunable long-wavelength response via thermal nitridation of mixtures of tantalum disulfide, metal hydroxides (A(OH)2), and molten-salt fluxes (e.g., SrCl2) as precursors. The SrTaO2N nanocrystals modified with a tailored Ir-Pt alloy@Cr2O3 cocatalyst evolved H2 around two orders of magnitude more efficiently than the previously reported SrTaO2N photocatalysts, with a record solar-to-hydrogen energy conversion efficiency of 0.15% for SrTaO2N in Z-scheme water splitting. Our findings enable the synthesis of perovskite-type transition-metal oxynitride nanocrystals by thermal nitridation and pave the way for manufacturing advanced long-wavelength-responsive particulate photocatalysts for efficient solar energy conversion.

Transition-metal (oxy)nitride photocatalysts for water splitting.

Solar-driven water splitting based on particulate semiconductor materials is studied as a technology for green hydrogen production. Transition-metal (oxy)nitride photocatalysts are promising materials for overall water splitting (OWS) via a one- or two-step excitation process because their band structure is suitable for water splitting under visible light. Yet, these materials suffer from low solar-to-hydrogen energy conversion efficiency (STH), mainly because of their high defect density, low charge separation and migration efficiency, sluggish surface redox reactions, and/or side reactions. Their poor thermal stability in air and under the harsh nitridation conditions required to synthesize these materials makes further material improvements difficult. Here, we review key challenges in the two different OWS systems and highlight some strategies recently identified as promising for improving photocatalytic activity. Finally, we discuss opportunities and challenges facing the future development of transition-metal (oxy)nitride-based OWS systems.

Co-doping of a La5Ti2Cu0.9Ag0.1O7S5 photocatalyst (λ < 700 nm) with Ga and Al to enhance photocatalytic H2 evolution.

La5Ti2Cu0.9Ag0.1O7S5 (LTCA) (λ < 700 nm) can function as a photocatalyst for H2 evolution. Co-doping LTCA with Ga3+ and Al3+ at Ti4+ sites effectively enhanced the H2 evolution activity of LTCA, yielding an apparent quantum efficiency of 18% at 420 nm. The activity of this material was greater than that previously reported for Ga-doped LTCA by a factor of 1.6. Such activity enhancement is attributed to increasing the population of long-lived photogenerated electrons and facilitating the electron transfer to the cocatalyst. This work significantly improved the LTCA-based photocatalyst for H2 evolution, making it a promising material for future application in non-sacrificial Z-scheme water splitting.

Silicalite-1 Layer Secures the Bifunctional Nature of a CO2 Hydrogenation Catalyst.

Close proximity usually shortens the travel distance of reaction intermediates, thus able to promote the catalytic performance of CO2 hydrogenation by a bifunctional catalyst, such as the widely reported In2O3/H-ZSM-5. However, nanoscale proximity (e.g., powder mixing, PM) more likely causes the fast deactivation of the catalyst, probably due to the migration of metals (e.g., In) that not only neutralizes the acid sites of zeolites but also leads to the reconstruction of the In2O3 surface, thus resulting in catalyst deactivation. Additionally, zeolite coking is another potential deactivation factor when dealing with this methanol-mediated CO2 hydrogenation process. Herein, we reported a facile approach to overcome these three challenges by coating a layer of silicalite-1 (S-1) shell outside a zeolite H-ZSM-5 crystal for the In2O3/H-ZSM-5-catalyzed CO2 hydrogenation. More specifically, the S-1 layer (1) restrains the migration of indium that preserved the acidity of H-ZSM-5 and at the same time (2) prevents the over-reduction of the In2O3 phase and (3) improves the catalyst lifetime by suppressing the aromatic cycle in a methanol-to-hydrocarbon conversion step. As such, the activity for the synthesis of C2 + hydrocarbons under nanoscale proximity (PM) was successfully obtained. Moreover, an enhanced performance was observed for the S-1-coated catalyst under microscale proximity (e.g., granule mixing, GM) in comparison to the S-1-coating-free counterpart. This work highlights an effective shielding strategy to secure the bifunctional nature of a CO2 hydrogenation catalyst.

Narrow-Band-Gap Particulate Photocatalysts for One-Step-Excitation Overall Water Splitting.

ConspectusSunlight-driven one-step-excitation overall water splitting (OWS) using a single particulate photocatalyst is a simple and cost-effective approach to producing sustainable hydrogen on a large scale, providing an important impetus to achieving a carbon-neutral society. Technoeconomic studies have determined that a minimum solar-to-hydrogen (STH) energy conversion efficiency of 5% must be achieved to allow this process to be economically competitive. Meeting this goal will require the fabrication of particulate photocatalysts comprising composites of semiconductors and cocatalysts that are sufficiently active under sunlight. A one-step-excitation OWS system based on a metal oxide semiconductor having a wide bandgap was first reported in 1980, and the performance of such systems has been improved significantly over the past decade. In particular, work by the authors' group increased the apparent quantum yield (AQY) obtainable for ultraviolet (UV)-active SrTiO3 to more than 90% in 2020. However, the STH conversion efficiency of a photocatalyst that absorbs only UV light (that is, λ < 400 nm) is limited to 1.7% even at an AQY of unity. It is therefore highly important to develop one-step-excitation OWS processes utilizing narrow bandgap photocatalysts having absorption edge wavelengths equal to or longer than 500 nm. Such systems would be expected to meet the desired 5% STH energy conversion efficiency once a constant AQY of approximately 63% is obtained.This Account summarizes the development and application of narrow-band-gap (oxy)nitride and oxysulfide photocatalysts in the authors' laboratory that are able to split water in response to wavelengths as high as 500 to 650 nm via single-step photoexcitation. At first, the authors briefly recount the key steps required to progress from the initial utilization of a UV-active SrTiO3 photocatalyst as an OWS-active material to the realization of an AQY of almost unity. Multiple design and refinement strategies applied to both the semiconductor and cocatalysts associated with this benchmark photocatalyst are summarized, providing insights into the rational design of narrow-band-gap OWS-active photocatalysts. Furthermore, the necessity, target, and current status of developing narrow-band-gap OWS-active photocatalysts are discussed, followed by a comprehensive discussion of progress in the fabrication of OWS-active (oxy)nitride and oxysulfide photocatalysts with absorption edge wavelengths at up to the range of 500-650 nm in our laboratory. Specific examples are used to show the importance of several factors. First, adjusting the properties of the semiconducting material based on designing appropriate precursors, optimizing the synthetic conditions and aliovalent doping is described. Second, loading of efficient dual cocatalysts is examined. Lastly, the effectiveness of coating the particulate photocatalysts with surface nanolayers is addressed. Deficits related to the performance of present-day photocatalysts are also evaluated. Expectations with regard to future improvements of (oxy)nitride- and oxysulfide-based photocatalysts as a means of increasing the AQY are considered. The strategies summarized in this Account are expected to promote the development of nonsacrificial long-wavelength-responsive photosynthesis systems using water as a hydrogen/oxygen source.

Overall Water Splitting by a SrTaO2N-Based Photocatalyst Decorated with an Ir-Promoted Ru-Based Cocatalyst.

The development of narrow-bandgap photocatalysts for one-step-excitation overall water splitting (OWS) remains a critical challenge in the field of solar hydrogen production. SrTaO2N is a photocatalytic material having a band structure suitable for OWS under visible light (λ ≤ 600 nm). However, the presence of defects in the oxynitride and the lack of cocatalysts to promote simultaneous hydrogen and oxygen evolution make it challenging to realize OWS using this material. The present work demonstrates a SrTaO2N-based particulate photocatalyst for OWS. This photocatalyst, which was composed of single crystals, was obtained by nitriding SrCl2 and Ta2O5 together with NaOH, with the latter added to control the formation of defects. The subsequent loading of bimetallic RuIrOx nanoparticles accelerated charge separation and allowed the SrTaO2N photocatalyst to exhibit superior OWS activity. This research presenting the strategies of controlling the oxygen sources and promoting the cocatalyst function is expected to expand the range of potential OWS-active oxynitride photocatalysts and permit the design of efficient cocatalysts for photocatalytic OWS.

Manipulating Selectivity of Hydroxyl Radical Generation by Single-Atom Catalysts in Catalytic Ozonation: Surface or Solution.

Hydroxyl radical-dominated oxidation in catalytic ozonation is, in particular, important in water treatment scenarios for removing organic contaminants, but the mechanism about ozone-based radical oxidation processes is still unclear. Here, we prepared a series of transitional metal (Co, Mn, Ni) single-atom catalysts (SACs) anchored on graphitic carbon nitride to accelerate ozone decomposition and produce highly reactive ·OH for oxidative destruction of a water pollutant, oxalic acid (OA). We experimentally observed that, depending on the metal type, OA oxidation occurred dominantly either in the bulk phase, which was the case for the Mn catalyst, or via a combination of the bulk phase and surface reaction, which was the case for the Co catalyst. We further performed density functional theory simulations and in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy to propose that the ozone activation pathway differs depending on the oxygen binding energy of metal, primarily due to differential adsorption of O3 onto metal sites and differential coordination configuration of a key intermediate species, *OO, which is collectively responsible for the observed differences in oxidation mechanisms and kinetics.

Enhanced Overall Water Splitting by a Zirconium-Doped TaON-Based Photocatalyst.

Solar-powered one-step-excitation overall water splitting (OWS) using semiconducting materials is a simple means of achieving scalable and sustainable hydrogen production. While tantalum oxynitride (TaON) is one of the few photocatalysts capable of promoting OWS via single-step visible-light excitation, the efficiency of this process remains extremely poor. The present work employed 15 nm amorphous Ta2 O5 ⋅3.3 H2 O nanoparticles as a new precursor together with Zr doping and an optimized nitridation duration to synthesize a TaON-based photocatalyst with reduced particle sizes and low defect densities. Upon loading with Ru/Cr2 O3 /IrO2 cocatalysts, this material exhibited stoichiometric water splitting into hydrogen and oxygen, with an order of magnitude improvement in efficiency. Our findings demonstrate the importance of inventing/selecting the appropriate synthetic precursor and of defect control for fabricating active OWS photocatalysts.

Tandem catalysis with double-shelled hollow spheres.

Metal-zeolite composites with metal (oxide) and acid sites are promising catalysts for integrating multiple reactions in tandem to produce a wide variety of wanted products without separating or purifying the intermediates. However, the conventional design of such materials often leads to uncontrolled and non-ideal spatial distributions of the metal inside/on the zeolites, limiting their catalytic performance. Here we demonstrate a simple strategy for synthesizing double-shelled, contiguous metal oxide@zeolite hollow spheres (denoted as MO@ZEO DSHSs) with controllable structural parameters and chemical compositions. This involves the self-assembly of zeolite nanocrystals onto the surface of metal ion-containing carbon spheres followed by calcination and zeolite growth steps. The step-by-step formation mechanism of the material is revealed using mainly in situ Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction and ex situ electron microscopy. We demonstrate that it is due to this structure that an Fe2O3@H-ZSM-5 DSHSs-showcase catalyst exhibits superior performance compared with various conventionally structured Fe2O3-H-ZSM-5 catalysts in gasoline production by the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. This work is expected to advance the rational synthesis and research of hierarchically hollow, core-shell, multifunctional catalyst materials.

Simultaneously Tuning the Defects and Surface Properties of Ta3N5 Nanoparticles by Mg-Zr Codoping for Significantly Accelerated Photocatalytic H2 Evolution.

The simultaneous control of the defect species and surface properties of semiconducting materials is a crucial aspect of improving photocatalytic performance, yet it remains challenging. Here, we synthesized Mg-Zr-codoped single-crystalline Ta3N5 (Ta3N5:Mg+Zr) nanoparticles by a brief NH3 nitridation process, exhibiting photocatalytic water reduction activity 45 times greater than that of pristine Ta3N5 under visible light. A coherent picture of the relations between the defect species (comprising reduced Ta, nitrogen vacancies and oxygen impurities), surface properties (associated with dispersion of the Pt cocatalyst), charge carrier dynamics, and photocatalytic activities was drawn. The tuning of defects and simultaneous optimization of surface properties resulting from the codoping evidently resulted in the generation of high concentrations of long-lived electrons in this material as well as the efficient migration of these electrons to evenly distributed surface Pt sites. These effects greatly enhanced the photocatalytic activity. This work highlights the importance and feasibility of improving multiple properties of a catalytic material via a one-step strategy.

Study of the Electrical Properties of Aluminate Cement Adhesives for Porcelain Insulators.

Electrical properties are one of the essential parameters of cement-based materials used in suspension porcelain insulators. This paper studied the electrical properties of aluminate cement adhesives (ACA) containing silica fume (SF), as well as their compressive strength and porosity. The results indicated that the addition of silica fume improved the resistivity of ACA under a saturated state (relative humidity is 50%). This was mainly attributed to the decrease of the ACA's pore connectivity due to the SF's filling effect. However, the early compressive strength of ACA was slightly reduced by the addition of SF. Under an unsaturated state, the ACA's resistivity without the SF gradually exceeded that with the SF at the extension of drying time. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) results indicated that the addition of SF content increased the ACA's porosity; for the tiny pores especially, (the size less than 25 nm), this increased by 3.4%. Meanwhile, the addition of SF increased the tortuosity of the ACA's conductive channels, which could improve its resistivity. Therefore, SF is recommended to be used in cement-based adhesives on insulators to lower the cost and improve the resistivity.

Visible-Light Photocatalytic Ozonation Using Graphitic C3N4 Catalysts: A Hydroxyl Radical Manufacturer for Wastewater Treatment.

Photocatalytic ozonation (light/O3/photocatalyst), an independent advanced oxidation process (AOP) proposed in 1996, has demonstrated over the past two decades its robust oxidation capacity and potential for practical wastewater treatment using sunlight and air (source of ozone). However, its development is restricted by two main issues: (i) a lack of breakthrough catalysts working under visible light (42-43% of sunlight in energy) as well as ambiguous property-activity relationships and (ii) unclear fundamental reasons underlying its high yield of hydroxyl radicals (•OH). In this Account, we summarize our substantial contributions to solving these issues, including (i) new-generation graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) catalysts with excellent performance for photocatalytic ozonation under visible light, (ii) mechanisms of charge carrier transfer and reactive oxygen species (ROS) evolution, (iii) property-activity relationships, and (iv) chemical and working stabilities of g-C3N4 catalysts. On this basis, the principles/directions for future catalyst design/optimization are discussed, and a new concept of integrating solar photocatalytic ozonation with catalytic ozonation in one plant for continuous treatment of wastewater regardless of sunlight availability is proposed.The story starts from our finding that bulk/nanosheet/nanoporous g-C3N4 triggers a strong synergy between visible light (vis) and ozone, causing efficient mineralization of a wide variety of organic pollutants. Taking bulk g-C3N4 as an example, photocatalytic ozonation (vis/O3/g-C3N4) causes the mineralization of oxalic acid (a model pollutant) at a rate 95.8 times higher than the sum of photocatalytic oxidation (vis/O2/g-C3N4) and ozonation. To unravel this synergism, we developed a method based on in situ electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy coupled with an online spin trapping technique for monitoring under realistic aqueous conditions the generation and transfer of photoinduced charge carriers and their reaction with dissolved O3/O2 to form ROS. The presence of only 2.1 mol % O3 in the inlet O2 gas stream can trap 1-2 times more conduction band electrons than pure O2 and shifts the reaction pathway from inefficient three-electron reduction of O2 (O2 → •O2- → HO2• → H2O2 → •OH) to more efficient one-electron reduction of O3 (O3 → •O3- → HO3• → •OH), thereby increasing the yield of •OH by a factor of 17. Next, we confirmed band structure as a decisive factor for catalytic performance and established a new concept for resolving this relationship, involving "the number of reactive charge carriers". An optimum balance between the number and reducing ability of photoinduced electrons, which depends on the interplay between the band gap and the conduction band edge potential, is a key property for highly active g-C3N4 catalysts. Furthermore, we demonstrated that g-C3N4 is chemically stable toward O3 and •O2- but that •OH can tear and oxidize its heptazine units to form cyameluric acid and further release nitrates into the aqueous environment. Fortunately, •OH usually attacks organic pollutants in wastewater in preference to g-C3N4, thus preserving the working stability of g-C3N4 and the steady operation of photocatalytic ozonation. This AOP, which serves as an in situ •OH manufacturer, would be of interest to a broad chemistry world since •OH radicals are active species not only for environmental applications but also for organic synthesis, polymerization, zeolite synthesis, and protein footprinting.

Single-Atom Mn-N4 Site-Catalyzed Peroxone Reaction for the Efficient Production of Hydroxyl Radicals in an Acidic Solution.

The peroxone reaction between O3 and H2O2 has been deemed a promising technology to resolve the increasingly serious water pollution problem by virtue of the generation of superactive hydroxyl radicals (•OH), but it suffers greatly from an extremely limited reaction rate constant under acidic conditions (ca. less than 0.1 M-1 s-1 at pH 3). This article describes a heterogeneous catalyst composed of single Mn atoms anchored on graphitic carbon nitride, which effectively overcomes such a drawback by altering the reaction pathway and thus dramatically promotes •OH generation in acid solution. Combined experimental and theoretical studies demonstrate Mn-N4 as the catalytically active sites. A distinctive catalytic pathway involving HO2• formation by the activation of H2O2 is found, which gets rid of the restriction of HO2- as the essential initiator in the conventional peroxone reaction. This work offers a new pathway of using a low-cost and easily accessible single-atom catalyst (SAC) and could inspire more catalytic oxidation strategies.

The role of ozone and influence of band structure in WO3 photocatalysis and ozone integrated process for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment.

Photocatalytic ozonation has great potential in wastewater treatment. However, the role of ozone and the contribution of photogenerated hole in this process have not been fully understood. Here three WO3 materials are synthesized and used as model catalysts in visible-light photocatalytic ozonation for the mineralization of pharmaceutical pollutants. A dual role of ozone in this process has been confirmed: (i) direct oxidation of the pollutant till formation of refractory intermediates, (ii) efficient trapping of photoelectron that cannot be captured by O2. The latter is crucial because it not only induces the O3--mediated pathway for hydroxyl radical (OH) formation but also separates the hole which has proven to be capable of oxidizing water into OH. Evidenced by photoluminescence results, the intrinsic charge separation ability of WO3 in photocatalytic ozonation is no more as important as that in photocatalysis with O2. Finally, this process is more applicable under acidic condition. This work contributes to a better understanding of the significance of ozone in WO3 photocatalytic ozonation and provides us an insight into the mechanism of photocatalytic ozonation.

High activity of g-C3N4/multiwall carbon nanotube in catalytic ozonation promotes electro-peroxone process.

Three kinds of graphitic carbon nitride materials (bulk, porous and nanosheet g-C3N4) were composited with a multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) by a hydrothermal method, and the obtained b-C3N4/CNT, p-C3N4/CNT and n-C3N4/CNT materials were used in the electrodes for electro-peroxone process. It was found that the n-C3N4/CNT composite exhibited the highest efficiency in oxalate degradation, though it performed the worst in the oxygen-reduction reaction for H2O2 production. The n-C3N4/CNT composite exhibited higher activity than CNT and other composites in catalytic ozonation experiments, due to the higher pyrrolic-N content modified on the CNT surface and higher surface area. It also has higher electron transfer ability, which benefited to the electro-reduction of both O2 and O3. The result confirmed that catalytic ozonation process was an important means to enhance the degradation efficiency in the electro-peroxone process, besides peroxone process and O3-electrolysis.

Is C3N4 Chemically Stable toward Reactive Oxygen Species in Sunlight-Driven Water Treatment?

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are key oxidants for the degradation of organic pollutants in sunlight-driven photocatalytic water treatment, but their interaction with the photocatalyst is easily ignored and, hence, is comparatively poorly understood. Here we show that graphitic carbon nitride (C3N4, a famous visible-light-responsive photocatalyst) is chemically stable toward ozone and superoxide radical; in contrast, hydroxyl radical (•OH) can tear the heptazine unit directly from C3N4 to form cyameluric acid and further release nitrates into the aqueous environment. The ratios of released nitrogen from nanosheet-structured C3N4 and bulk C3N4 that finally exists in the form of NO3- reach 9.5 and 6.8 mol % in initially ultrapure water, respectively, after 10 h treatment by solar photocatalytic ozonation, which can rapidly generate abundant •OH to attack C3N4. On a positive note, in the presence of organic pollutants which compete against C3N4 for •OH, the C3N4 decomposition has been completely or partially blocked; therefore, the stability of C3N4 under practical working conditions has been obviously preserved. This work supplements the missing knowledge of the chemical instability of C3N4 toward •OH and calls for attention to the potential deactivation and secondary pollution of catalysts in •OH-involved water treatment processes.

Selection of active phase of MnO2 for catalytic ozonation of 4-nitrophenol.

Catalytic ozonation is a highly effective method in wastewater treatment, and MnO2 materials are widely recognized as active heterogeneous catalysts in this process. Many works reported the progress in active MnO2 synthesis, but the active phase is rarely systematically studied. In this paper, all six phases of MnO2 (α-, ß-, δ-, γ-, λ- and ε-) were synthesized by facile methods. Their catalytic activities in ozonation of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) were evaluated and correlated with the physicochemical properties obtained from X-ray Diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), physical adsorption and cyclic voltammetry (CV) analysis. α- MnO2 was found to be the most active catalyst in 4-NP degradation at neutral pH. MnO2 with low average oxidation state (AOS) showed stronger oxidation/reduction peaks in CV characterization, which benefited catalytic decomposition of ozone to generate active species. Superoxide radical was confirmed as the main oxidizing species, along with singlet oxygen and ozone molecule oxidation in bulk solution and little contribution of oxidation on the MnO2 surface. Mn2+ leaching happened during catalytic ozonation, but its catalytic role is negligible. This result may give rise to the preparation of new active MnO2 catalysts.

Efficient Catalytic Ozonation over Reduced Graphene Oxide for p-Hydroxylbenzoic Acid (PHBA) Destruction: Active Site and Mechanism.

Nanocarbons have been demonstrated as promising environmentally benign catalysts for advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) upgrading metal-based materials. In this study, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) with a low level of structural defects was synthesized via a scalable method for catalytic ozonation of p-hydroxylbenzoic acid (PHBA). Metal-free rGO materials were found to exhibit a superior activity in activating ozone for catalytic oxidation of organic phenolics. The electron-rich carbonyl groups were identified as the active sites for the catalytic reaction. Electron spin resonance (ESR) and radical competition tests revealed that superoxide radical ((•)O2(-)) and singlet oxygen ((1)O2) were the reactive oxygen species (ROS) for PHBA degradation. The intermediates and the degradation pathways were illustrated from mass spectroscopy. It was interesting to observe that addition of NaCl could enhance both ozonation and catalytic ozonation efficiencies and make ·O2(-) as the dominant ROS. Stability of the catalysts was also evaluated by the successive tests. Loss of specific surface area and changes in the surface chemistry were suggested to be responsible for catalyst deactivation.

Superoxide radical-mediated photocatalytic oxidation of phenolic compounds over Ag⁺/TiO2: Influence of electron donating and withdrawing substituents.

A comparative study was constructed to correlate the electronic property of the substituents with the degradation rates of phenolic compounds and their oxidation pathways under UV with Ag(+)/TiO2 suspensions. It was verified that a weak electron withdrawing substituent benefited photocatalytic oxidation the most, while an adverse impact appeared when a substituent was present with stronger electron donating or withdrawing ability. The addition of p-benzoquinone dramatically blocked the degradation, confirming superoxide radicals (O2(-)) as the dominant photooxidant, rather than hydroxyl radicals, singlet oxygen or positive holes, which was also independent of the substituent. Hammett relationship was established based on pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics, and it revealed two disparate reaction patterns between O2(-) and phenolic compounds, which was further verified by the quantum chemical computation on the frontier molecular orbitals and Mulliken charge distributions of O2(-) and phenolic compounds. It was found that electron donating group (EDG) substituted phenols were more likely nucleophilically attacked by O2(-), while O2(-) preferred to electrophilically assault electron withdrawing group (EWG) substituted phenols. Exceptionally, electrophilic and nucleophilic attack by O2(-) could simultaneously occur in p-chlorophenol degradation, consequently leading to its highest rate constant. Possible reactive positions on the phenolic compounds were also detailedly uncovered.