Delirium following traumatic brain injury in adolescents: Symptomatology and prediction of ability to return to school or employment 1-year post-injury.

BACKGROUND: There is a limited evidence-base describing clinical features of delirium in youth. What is known is largely extrapolated from studies of adults or samples with heterogeneous etiologies. It is unclear if the symptoms experienced by adolescents differ from those experienced by adults, or the degree to which delirium impacts the ability of adolescents to return to school or work. OBJECTIVE: To describe delirium symptomatology among adolescents following a severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Symptoms were compared by adolescent delirium status and across age groups. Delirium and its relationship with adolescent employability 1 year post-injury was also examined. DESIGN: Exploratory secondary analysis of prospectively collected data. SETTING: Free-standing rehabilitation hospital. PATIENTS: Severely injured TBI Model Systems neurorehabilitation admissions (n = 243; median Glasgow Coma Scale = 7). The sample was divided into three age groups (adolescents, 16-21 years, n = 63; adults 22-49 years, n = 133; older adults ≥50 years, n = 47). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MEASURES: We assessed patients using Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) diagnostic criteria and the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised 98 (DRS-R-98). The employability item from the Disability Rating Scale was the primary 1-year outcome. RESULTS: Most items on the DRS-R-98 differentiated delirious from non-delirious adolescents. Only "delusions" differed among age groups. Among adolescents, delirium status 1 month post-TBI provided acceptable classification of employability prediction 1 year later (area under the curve [AUC]: 0.80, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.69-0.91, p < .001). Delirium symptom severity (AUC: 0.86, 95% CI: 0.68-1.03, SE: 0.09; p < .001) and days of post-traumatic amnesia (AUC: 0.85, 95% CI: 0.68-1.01, SE: 0.08; p < .001) provided excellent prediction of outcomes for TBI patients in delirium. CONCLUSIONS: Delirium symptomatology was similar among age groups and useful in differentiating the delirium status within the adolescent TBI group. Delirium and symptom severity at 1 month post-TBI were highly predictive of poor outcomes. Findings from this study support the utility of DRS-R-98 at 1 month post-injury to inform treatment and planning.

Post-traumatic Confusional State: A Case Definition and Diagnostic Criteria.

In response to the need to better define the natural history of emerging consciousness after traumatic brain injury and to better describe the characteristics of the condition commonly labeled posttraumatic amnesia, a case definition and diagnostic criteria for the posttraumatic confusional state (PTCS) were developed. This project was completed by the Confusion Workgroup of the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine Brain Injury Interdisciplinary Special Interest group. The case definition was informed by an exhaustive literature review and expert opinion of workgroup members from multiple disciplines. The workgroup reviewed 2466 abstracts and extracted evidence from 44 articles. Consensus was reached through teleconferences, face-to-face meetings, and 3 rounds of modified Delphi voting. The case definition provides detailed description of PTCS (1) core neurobehavioral features, (2) associated neurobehavioral features, (3) functional implications, (4) exclusion criteria, (5) lower boundary, and (6) criteria for emergence. Core neurobehavioral features include disturbances of attention, orientation, and memory as well as excessive fluctuation. Associated neurobehavioral features include emotional and behavioral disturbances, sleep-wake cycle disturbance, delusions, perceptual disturbances, and confabulation. The lower boundary distinguishes PTCS from the minimally conscious state, while upper boundary is marked by significant improvement in the 4 core and 5 associated features. Key research goals are establishment of cutoffs on assessment instruments and determination of levels of behavioral function that distinguish persons in PTCS from those who have emerged to the period of continued recovery.

Minimum Competency Recommendations for Programs That Provide Rehabilitation Services for Persons With Disorders of Consciousness: A Position Statement of the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine and the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems.

Persons who have disorders of consciousness (DoC) require care from multidisciplinary teams with specialized training and expertise in management of the complex needs of this clinical population. The recent promulgation of practice guidelines for patients with prolonged DoC by the American Academy of Neurology, American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine (ACRM), and National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research (NIDILRR) represents a major advance in the development of care standards in this area of brain injury rehabilitation. Implementation of these practice guidelines requires explication of the minimum competencies of clinical programs providing services to persons who have DoC. The Brain Injury Interdisciplinary Special Interest Group of the ACRM, in collaboration with the Disorders of Consciousness Special Interest Group of the NIDILRR-Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems convened a multidisciplinary panel of experts to address this need through the present position statement. Content area-specific workgroups reviewed relevant peer-reviewed literature and drafted recommendations which were then evaluated by the expert panel using a modified Delphi voting process. The process yielded 21 recommendations on the structure and process of essential services required for effective DoC-focused rehabilitation, organized into 4 categories: diagnostic and prognostic assessment (4 recommendations), treatment (11 recommendations), transitioning care/long-term care needs (5 recommendations), and management of ethical issues (1 recommendation). With few exceptions, these recommendations focus on infrastructure requirements and operating procedures for the provision of DoC-focused neurorehabilitation services across subacute and postacute settings.

Knee Muscle Stretch Reflex Responses After an Intrathecal Baclofen Bolus in Neurological Patients With Moderate-to-Severe Hypertonia.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the prevalence, onset threshold, and response magnitude of stretch reflex response (SRR) in the knee extensors and flexors before and after an intrathecal baclofen (ITB) bolus injection in patients with moderate-to-severe hypertonia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: SRRs were elicited by reciprocal passive knee extension/flexion movements at preset angular velocities of 5, 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300°/s using an isokinetic dynamometer and recorded with surface electromyographic (EMG) electrodes placed over the knee extensors and flexors in 53 neurologic patients before and at 2.5 and 5 hours after an ITB injection via lumbar puncture. Outcome measures included the number of patients with presence/absence of SRRs, the number of SRRs per session, SRR onset threshold angle and velocity, and response magnitudes (peak EMG and area under the EMG curve) for each muscle. Pre-post comparisons were completed using the Fisher's exact and Wilcoxon signed rank tests. RESULTS: For both knee extensors and flexors, the proportion of patients with present SRRs (p < 0.0001) and the number of SRRs per session (p ≤ 0.027) decreased from pre- to post-ITB. The threshold velocity significantly increased post-injection in both muscles (p ≤ 0.001) without significant changes in the threshold angle. The response magnitudes significantly decreased in the knee extensors (p ≤ 0.016) but not the knee flexors after the injection. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and threshold velocity of SRR emerged as the most robust and practical parameters for assessing hyperreflexia during ITB bolus trial that can complement clinical assessment of muscle hypertonia.

Practice Guideline Update Recommendations Summary: Disorders of Consciousness: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology; the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine; and the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research.

OBJECTIVE: To update the 1995 American Academy of Neurology (AAN) practice parameter on persistent vegetative state and the 2002 case definition on minimally conscious state (MCS) and provide care recommendations for patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness (DoC). METHODS: Recommendations were based on systematic review evidence, related evidence, care principles, and inferences using a modified Delphi consensus process according to the AAN 2011 process manual, as amended. RECOMMENDATIONS: Clinicians should identify and treat confounding conditions, optimize arousal, and perform serial standardized assessments to improve diagnostic accuracy in adults and children with prolonged DoC (Level B). Clinicians should counsel families that for adults, MCS (vs vegetative state [VS]/ unresponsive wakefulness syndrome [UWS]) and traumatic (vs nontraumatic) etiology are associated with more favorable outcomes (Level B). When prognosis is poor, long-term care must be discussed (Level A), acknowledging that prognosis is not universally poor (Level B). Structural MRI, SPECT, and the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised can assist prognostication in adults (Level B); no tests are shown to improve prognostic accuracy in children. Pain always should be assessed and treated (Level B) and evidence supporting treatment approaches discussed (Level B). Clinicians should prescribe amantadine (100-200 mg bid) for adults with traumatic VS/UWS or MCS (4-16 weeks post injury) to hasten functional recovery and reduce disability early in recovery (Level B). Family counseling concerning children should acknowledge that natural history of recovery, prognosis, and treatment are not established (Level B). Recent evidence indicates that the term chronic VS/UWS should replace permanent VS, with duration specified (Level B). Additional recommendations are included.

Comprehensive Systematic Review Update Summary: Disorders of Consciousness: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology; the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine; and the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research.

OBJECTIVE: To update the 1995 American Academy of Neurology (AAN) practice parameter on persistent vegetative state and the 2002 case definition for the minimally conscious state (MCS) by reviewing the literature on the diagnosis, natural history, prognosis, and treatment of disorders of consciousness lasting at least 28 days. METHODS: Articles were classified per the AAN evidence-based classification system. Evidence synthesis occurred through a modified Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation process. Recommendations were based on evidence, related evidence, care principles, and inferences according to the AAN 2011 process manual, as amended. RESULTS: No diagnostic assessment procedure had moderate or strong evidence for use. It is possible that a positive EMG response to command, EEG reactivity to sensory stimuli, laser-evoked potentials, and the Perturbational Complexity Index can distinguish MCS from vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/UWS). The natural history of recovery from prolonged VS/UWS is better in traumatic than nontraumatic cases. MCS is generally associated with a better prognosis than VS (conclusions of low to moderate confidence in adult populations), and traumatic injury is generally associated with a better prognosis than nontraumatic injury (conclusions of low to moderate confidence in adult and pediatric populations). Findings concerning other prognostic features are stratified by etiology of injury (traumatic vs nontraumatic) and diagnosis (VS/UWS vs MCS) with low to moderate degrees of confidence. Therapeutic evidence is sparse. Amantadine probably hastens functional recovery in patients with MCS or VS/UWS secondary to severe traumatic brain injury over 4 weeks of treatment. Recommendations are presented separately.

Comprehensive systematic review update summary: Disorders of consciousness: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology; the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine; and the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research.

OBJECTIVE: To update the 1995 American Academy of Neurology (AAN) practice parameter on persistent vegetative state and the 2002 case definition for the minimally conscious state (MCS) by reviewing the literature on the diagnosis, natural history, prognosis, and treatment of disorders of consciousness lasting at least 28 days. METHODS: Articles were classified per the AAN evidence-based classification system. Evidence synthesis occurred through a modified Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation process. Recommendations were based on evidence, related evidence, care principles, and inferences according to the AAN 2011 process manual, as amended. RESULTS: No diagnostic assessment procedure had moderate or strong evidence for use. It is possible that a positive EMG response to command, EEG reactivity to sensory stimuli, laser-evoked potentials, and the Perturbational Complexity Index can distinguish MCS from vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/UWS). The natural history of recovery from prolonged VS/UWS is better in traumatic than nontraumatic cases. MCS is generally associated with a better prognosis than VS (conclusions of low to moderate confidence in adult populations), and traumatic injury is generally associated with a better prognosis than nontraumatic injury (conclusions of low to moderate confidence in adult and pediatric populations). Findings concerning other prognostic features are stratified by etiology of injury (traumatic vs nontraumatic) and diagnosis (VS/UWS vs MCS) with low to moderate degrees of confidence. Therapeutic evidence is sparse. Amantadine probably hastens functional recovery in patients with MCS or VS/UWS secondary to severe traumatic brain injury over 4 weeks of treatment. Recommendations are presented separately.

Practice guideline update recommendations summary: Disorders of consciousness: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology; the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine; and the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research.

OBJECTIVE: To update the 1995 American Academy of Neurology (AAN) practice parameter on persistent vegetative state and the 2002 case definition on minimally conscious state (MCS) and provide care recommendations for patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness (DoC). METHODS: Recommendations were based on systematic review evidence, related evidence, care principles, and inferences using a modified Delphi consensus process according to the AAN 2011 process manual, as amended. RECOMMENDATIONS: Clinicians should identify and treat confounding conditions, optimize arousal, and perform serial standardized assessments to improve diagnostic accuracy in adults and children with prolonged DoC (Level B). Clinicians should counsel families that for adults, MCS (vs vegetative state [VS]/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome [UWS]) and traumatic (vs nontraumatic) etiology are associated with more favorable outcomes (Level B). When prognosis is poor, long-term care must be discussed (Level A), acknowledging that prognosis is not universally poor (Level B). Structural MRI, SPECT, and the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised can assist prognostication in adults (Level B); no tests are shown to improve prognostic accuracy in children. Pain always should be assessed and treated (Level B) and evidence supporting treatment approaches discussed (Level B). Clinicians should prescribe amantadine (100-200 mg bid) for adults with traumatic VS/UWS or MCS (4-16 weeks post injury) to hasten functional recovery and reduce disability early in recovery (Level B). Family counseling concerning children should acknowledge that natural history of recovery, prognosis, and treatment are not established (Level B). Recent evidence indicates that the term chronic VS/UWS should replace permanent VS, with duration specified (Level B). Additional recommendations are included.

Focal Electroencephalographic Changes Index Post-Traumatic Confusion and Outcome.

While the duration and severity of post-traumatic confusional state (PTCS) after traumatic brain injury have well-established implications for long-term outcomes, little is known about the underlying pathophysiology and their role in functional outcomes. Here, we analyzed the delta-to-alpha frequency band power ratios (DAR) from localized scalp areas derived from standard resting electroencephalographic (EEG) data recorded during eyes closed state in 49 patients diagnosed with PTCS. Higher global, occipital, parietal, and temporal DARs were significantly associated with the severity of PTCS, as assessed by the Confusion Assessment Protocol (CAP) observed on the same day, after controlling for injury severity. Also, occipital DARs were positively associated with both the CAP disorientation score 2, and the CAP symptom fluctuation score 4, after controlling for injury severity (n = 35). Posterior DARs were significantly associated with Functional Independence Measure-cognitive subscale average score at 1 (n = 45), 2 (n = 42), and 5 (n = 34) year(s) post-injury. The associations at 1 (temporal left) and 2 (parietal left) years survive after controlling for an injury severity index. Our finding that posterior DAR is a marker of PTCS and functional recovery post-injury, likely reflects functional de-afferentation of the posterior medial complex (PMC) in PTCS. Altered function of the PMC is proposed as a unifying physiological mechanism underlying both acute and chronic confusional states. We discuss the relationship of these findings to electrophysiological markers associated with disorders of consciousness.

Intrathecal baclofen bolus reduces exaggerated extensor coactivation during pre-swing and early-swing of gait after acquired brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the concurrent activation of rectus femoris (RF) and medial gastrocnemius (MG) muscles (extensor coactivation) during gait in subjects with pronounced resting hypertonia after acquired brain injury (ABI) and examine changes after intrathecal baclofen (ITB) bolus injection. METHODS: Magnitude and duration of extensor coactivation during different phases of gait were assessed by recording gait kinematics and activity in bilateral RF and MG muscles in 18 controls and 18 ABI subjects before and at 2, 4, and 6h after a 50-µg ITB injection. RESULTS: Compared to controls, the magnitude of extensor coactivation was significantly increased in all phases of gait except the single support (p≤0.005), while the duration was significantly prolonged throughout (p≤0.001) in both legs of ABI subjects. After ITB bolus, only the duration of extensor coactivation significantly shortened in the more-affected leg during the late double-support and early swing (p≤0.026). CONCLUSIONS: Extensor coactivation is bilaterally exaggerated during gait in ABI subjects. ITB bolus effectively shortens the extensor coactivation in the more-affected leg during the pre-swing and early swing phases of gait. SIGNIFICANCE: Shortening of the prolonged extensor coactivation during gait may serve as an index of neurophysiological response to ITB bolus injection in subjects with ABI.

Practice guideline update summary: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of blepharospasm, cervical dystonia, adult spasticity, and headache: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology.

OBJECTIVE: To update the 2008 American Academy of Neurology (AAN) guidelines regarding botulinum neurotoxin for blepharospasm, cervical dystonia (CD), headache, and adult spasticity. METHODS: We searched the literature for relevant articles and classified them using 2004 AAN criteria. RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Blepharospasm: OnabotulinumtoxinA (onaBoNT-A) and incobotulinumtoxinA (incoBoNT-A) are probably effective and should be considered (Level B). AbobotulinumtoxinA (aboBoNT-A) is possibly effective and may be considered (Level C). CD: AboBoNT-A and rimabotulinumtoxinB (rimaBoNT-B) are established as effective and should be offered (Level A), and onaBoNT-A and incoBoNT-A are probably effective and should be considered (Level B). Adult spasticity: AboBoNT-A, incoBoNT-A, and onaBoNT-A are established as effective and should be offered (Level A), and rimaBoNT-B is probably effective and should be considered (Level B), for upper limb spasticity. AboBoNT-A and onaBoNT-A are established as effective and should be offered (Level A) for lower-limb spasticity. Headache: OnaBoNT-A is established as effective and should be offered to increase headache-free days (Level A) and is probably effective and should be considered to improve health-related quality of life (Level B) in chronic migraine. OnaBoNT-A is established as ineffective and should not be offered for episodic migraine (Level A) and is probably ineffective for chronic tension-type headaches (Level B).

Effect of intrathecal baclofen bolus injection on ankle muscle activation during gait in patients with acquired brain injury.

BACKGROUND: Intrathecal baclofen (ITB) bolus injection effectively decreases spinal excitability but the impact on lower limb muscle activation during gait has not been thoroughly investigated. OBJECTIVE: Examine activation of medial gastrocnemius (MG) and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles during gait before and after ITB bolus injection in patients with resting hypertonia after acquired brain injury. METHODS: Lower extremity Ashworth score, temporospatial gait parameters, characteristics of the linear relationship between electromyogram (EMG) and lengthening velocity (LV) in MG during stance, and the duration and magnitude of TA-MG coactivation were assessed before and at 2, 4, and 6 hours after a 50-µg ITB injection via lumbar puncture in 8 hemorrhagic stroke and 11 traumatic brain injury subjects. RESULTS: Temporospatial gait parameters did not significantly differ across the evaluation points (P ≥ .170). However, Ashworth score (P < .001), frequency and gain of significant positive EMG-LV slope (P ≤ .020), and duration of TA-MG coactivation (P ≤ .013) significantly decreased in the more-affected leg after ITB bolus. EMG changes were not significantly different between patients who did (n = 10) and did not (n = 9) increase gait speed after the injection. The timing of the largest decrease in Ashworth score and the largest decrease in EMG parameters coincided in 36% of cases, on average. CONCLUSIONS: ITB bolus injection alters the activation of MG and TA during gait. However, the changes in muscle activation are not closely related to the changes in gait speed or resting muscle hypertonia. The analysis of ankle muscle activation during gait better characterizes the response to ITB bolus injection than gait kinematics.

Subtypes of post-traumatic epilepsy: clinical, electrophysiological, and imaging features.

Post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) is a consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI), occurring in 10-25% of patients with moderate to severe injuries. The development of animal models for testing antiepileptogenic therapies and validation of biomarkers to follow epileptogenesis in humans necessitates sophisticated understanding of the subtypes of PTE, which is the objective of this study. In this study, retrospective review was performed of patients with moderate to severe TBI with subsequent development of medically refractory epilepsy referred for video-electroencephalography (EEG) monitoring at a single center over a 10-year period. Information regarding details of injury, neuroimaging studies, seizures, video-EEG, and surgery outcomes were collected and analyzed. There were 123 patients with PTE identified, representing 4.3% of all patients evaluated in the epilepsy monitoring unit. Most of them had localization-related epilepsy, of which 57% had temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), 35% had frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE), and 3% each had parietal and occipital lobe epilepsy. Of patients with TLE, 44% had mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS), 26% had temporal neocortical lesions, and 30% were nonlesional. There was no difference in age at injury between the different PTE subtypes. Twenty-two patients, 13 of whom had MTS, proceeded to surgical resection. At a mean follow-up of 2.5 years, Engel Class I outcomes were seen in 69% of those with TLE and 33% of those with FLE. Our findings suggest PTE is a heterogeneous condition, and careful evaluation with video-EEG monitoring and high resolution MRI can identify distinct syndromes. These results have implications for the design of clinical trials of antiepileptogenic therapies for PTE.

Psychotic symptoms as manifestations of the posttraumatic confusional state: prevalence, risk factors, and association with outcome.

OBJECTIVES: To (1) determine factors associated with psychotic-type symptoms in persons with moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) during early recovery and (2) investigate the prognostic significance of early psychotic-type symptoms for patient outcome. SETTING: Acute neurorehabilitation inpatient unit. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 168 persons with moderate or severe TBI were admitted for inpatient rehabilitation. Of these, 107 had psychotic-type symptoms on at least 1 examination. One-year productivity outcome was available for 87 of the 107 participants. DESIGN: Prospective, inception cohort, observational study. MAIN MEASURES: Confusion Assessment Protocol, productivity outcome at 1 year postinjury. RESULTS: Presence of sleep disturbance, a shorter interval from admission to assessment, and greater cognitive impairment were associated with a greater incidence of psychotic-type symptoms. Younger age, more years of education, and lower frequency and severity of psychotic-type symptoms were associated with a greater likelihood of favorable productivity outcome. CONCLUSIONS: We identified risk factors for the occurrence of psychotic-type symptoms and extended previous findings regarding the significance of these symptoms for outcome after TBI. These findings suggest that improved sleep in early TBI recovery may decrease the occurrence of psychotic-type symptoms.

Do rehospitalization rates differ among injury severity levels in the NIDRR Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems program?

OBJECTIVE: To compare the rate and nature of rehospitalization in a cohort of patients enrolled in the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS) who have disorders of consciousness (DOC) at the time of rehabilitation admission with those in persons with moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) but without DOC at rehabilitation admission. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. SETTING: Inpatient rehabilitation within TBIMS with annual follow-up. PARTICIPANTS: Of 9028 persons enrolled from 1988 to 2009 (N=9028), 366 from 20 centers met criteria for DOC at rehabilitation admission and follow-up data, and another 5132 individuals met criteria for moderate (n=769) or severe TBI (n=4363). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participants and/or their family members completed follow-up data collection including questions about frequency and nature of rehospitalizations at 1 year postinjury. For the subset of participants with DOC, additional follow-up was conducted at 2 and 5 years postinjury. RESULTS: The DOC group demonstrated an overall 2-fold increase in rehospitalization in the first year postinjury relative to those with moderate or severe TBI without DOC. Persons with DOC at rehabilitation admission have a higher rate of rehospitalization across several categories than persons with moderate or severe TBI. CONCLUSIONS: Although the specific details of rehospitalization are unknown, greater injury severity resulting in DOC status on rehabilitation admission has long-term implications. Data highlight the need for a longitudinal approach to patient management.

Medical complications during inpatient rehabilitation among patients with traumatic disorders of consciousness.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the incidence of medical complications in patients with recent traumatic disorders of consciousness (DOCs). DESIGN: Data on adverse events in a placebo controlled trial of amantadine hydrochloride revealed no group difference, which allowed these events to be reanalyzed descriptively as medical complications experienced by the 2 groups collectively. SETTING: Eleven clinical facilities in the United States, Denmark, and Germany with specialty rehabilitation programs for patients with DOCs. PARTICIPANTS: Patients (N=184) with nonpenetrating traumatic brain injury enrolled from acute inpatient rehabilitation programs between 4 and 16 weeks postinjury. INTERVENTIONS: Participants were randomized to receive 200 to 400mg of amantadine hydrochloride or placebo daily for 4 weeks, and followed for an additional 2 weeks. Adverse events were recorded and categorized with respect to their nature, timing, and severity. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Number, type, and severity of medical complications occurring during the 6-week study interval. RESULTS: A total of 468 medical complications were documented among the patients (.40 events per week per patient). More than 80% of patients experienced at least 1 medical complication, and 41 of these were defined as serious adverse events. New medical complications declined over time in rehabilitation and were not dependent on time since injury. Hypertonia, agitation/aggression, urinary tract infection, and sleep disturbance were the most commonly reported problems. Hydrocephalus, pneumonia, gastrointestinal problems, and paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity were the most likely to be severe. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with DOCs have a high rate of medical complications early after injury. Many of these complications require brain injury expertise for optimal management. Active medical management appears to contribute to the reduction in new complications. An optimal system of care for DOC patients must provide expert medical management in the early weeks after injury.

Functional outcomes in traumatic disorders of consciousness: 5-year outcomes from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the 5-year outcomes of patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) not following commands when admitted to acute inpatient rehabilitation. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of prospectively collected data from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research-funded Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS). SETTING: Inpatient rehabilitation hospitals participating in the TBIMS program. PARTICIPANTS: Patients (N=108) with TBI not following commands at admission to acute inpatient rehabilitation were divided into 2 groups (early recovery: followed commands before discharge [n=72]; late recovery: did not follow commands before discharge [n=36]). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: FIM items. RESULTS: For the early recovery group, depending on the FIM item, 8% to 21% of patients were functioning independently at discharge, increasing to 56% to 85% by 5 years postinjury. The proportion functioning independently increased from discharge to 1 year, 1 to 2 years, and 2 to 5 years. In the late recovery group, depending on the FIM item, 19% to 36% of patients were functioning independently by 5 years postinjury. The proportion of independent patients increased significantly from discharge to 1 year and from 1 to 2 years, but not from 2 to 5 years. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial proportions of patients admitted to acute inpatient rehabilitation before following commands recover independent functioning over as long as 5 years, particularly if they begin to follow commands before hospital discharge.

Prospective evaluation of the nature, course, and impact of acute sleep abnormality after traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To prospectively characterize the prevalence, course, and impact of acute sleep abnormality among traumatic brain injury (TBI) neurorehabilitation admissions. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. SETTING: Freestanding rehabilitation hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Primarily severe TBI (median emergency department Glasgow Coma Scale [GCS] score=7; N=205) patients who were mostly men (71%) and white (68%) were evaluated during acute neurorehabilitation. INTERVENTIONS: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98 (DelRS-R98) was administered weekly throughout rehabilitation hospitalization. DelRS-R98 item 1 was used to classify severity of sleep-wake cycle disturbance (SWCD) as none, mild, moderate, or severe. SWCD ratings were analyzed both serially and at 1 month postinjury. RESULTS: For the entire sample, 66% (mild to severe) had SWCD at 1 month postinjury. The course of the SWCD using a subset (n=152) revealed that 84% had SWCD on rehabilitation admission, with 63% having moderate to severe ratings (median, 24d postinjury). By the third serial exam (median, 35d postinjury), 59% remained with SWCD, and 28% had moderate to severe ratings. Using general linear modeling and adjusting for age, emergency department GCS score, and days postinjury, presence of moderate to severe SWCD at 1 month postinjury made significant contributions in predicting duration of posttraumatic amnesia (P<.01) and rehabilitation hospital length of stay (P<.01). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that sleep abnormalities after TBI are prevalent and decrease over time. However, a high percent remained with SWCD throughout the course of rehabilitation intervention. Given the brevity of inpatient neurorehabilitation, future studies may explore targeting SWCD to improve early outcomes, such as cognitive functioning and economic impact, after TBI.

Posttraumatic confusion predicts patient cooperation during traumatic brain injury rehabilitation.

Scant research has examined the relationship between posttraumatic confusion (PTC) and cooperation during rehabilitation from moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. In this study, PTC and cooperation were examined in a prospective cohort of 74 inpatients with traumatic Brain Injury. Confusion was measured using the Confusion Assessment Protocol. Cooperation was rated on a 0-100 scale by rehabilitation therapists. Using multiple regression analysis, PTC significantly predicted cooperation (R(2) = 0.33, P < 0.001). Age at injury, education, days since injury, and Glasgow Come Scale scores were not significant predictors. Bivariate analyses indicated that four PTC symptoms significantly predicted poorer cooperation: daytime hypersomnolence (ρ = -0.42, P < 0.001), agitation (ρ = -0.39, P = 0.001), psychosis (ρ = -0.39, P = 0.001), and cognitive impairment (ρ = -0.24, P = 0.04). Results provide empirical support that PTC is associated with poorer cooperation and empirical justification for interventions to manage confusion during early recovery from traumatic brain injury.