ABSTRACT
In recent years there has been a growing recognition of the influence of sex on brain structure and function, and in relation, on the susceptibility, prevalence and response to treatment of psychiatric disorders. Most theories and descriptions of the effects of sex on the brain are dominated by an analogy to the current interpretation of the effects of sex on the reproductive system, according to which sex is a divergence system that exerts a unitary, overriding and serial effect on the form of other systems. We shortly summarize different lines of evidence that contradict aspects of this analogy. The new view that emerges from these data is of sex as a complex system whose different components interact with one another and with other systems to affect body and brain. The paradigm shift that this understanding calls for is from thinking of sex in terms of sexual dimorphism and sex differences, to thinking of sex in terms of its interactions with other factors and processes. Our review of data obtained from animal models of psychopathology clearly reveals the need for such a paradigmatic shift, because in the field of animal behaviour whether a sex difference exists and its direction depend on the interaction of many factors including, species, strain, age, specific test employed and a multitude of environmental factors. We conclude by explaining how the new conceptualization can account for sex differences in psychopathology.
Subject(s)
Disease Models, Animal , Mental Disorders , Animals , Brain/physiology , Gonadal Hormones/physiology , Mental Disorders/physiopathology , Reproductive Physiological Phenomena , Sex CharacteristicsABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: This study examined the relationship between children's and adolescents' external (aggression or delinquent behaviour) and internal (depression and anxiety, somatic complaints or regressive behaviour) symptoms and their perceptions of parenting behaviour. METHOD: Participants were 159 children (83 boys and 76 girls) aged 10-17 years and were categorized into five groups. The two experimental groups included clearly defined externalizing (n=35) and internalizing (n=46) children. Two sibling groups and one non-sibling group served as controls. The five groups were compared for subjective perceptions of maternal and paternal rejection, favouritism and overprotection. RESULTS: No effects of age or gender were found. The results revealed that compared with non-symptomatic children from different families and with non-symptomatic siblings, both internalizing and externalizing children obtained higher scores on the variables examined. Externalizing children obtained the highest scores, while internalizing children obtained intermediate scores. The sibling comparison data revealed a gap between the perceptions of symptomatic children and their siblings: symptomatic children reported negative parenting practices towards both themselves and their siblings, whereas the opposite was true of sibling reports. The reports suggest that while both internalizing and externalizing symptoms are associated with negative perceptions of the parent-child interaction, this may be particularly the case among externalizing children. CONCLUSIONS: The importance of perceptions of reality, as opposed to objective circumstances, is discussed in the context of treatment.
Subject(s)
Child Rearing/psychology , Parent-Child Relations , Parenting/psychology , Adolescent , Age Factors , Case-Control Studies , Child , Female , Humans , Male , Psychology, Adolescent , Sex Factors , Sibling RelationsABSTRACT
The current study examines the implications of responsibility and obligation on separation-individuation processes and the appearance of various symptoms of psychological distress in adolescent children of multiple sclerosis (MS) parents. We examined 56 children, between the ages of 10 and 18 years, each with a parent with MS. The results were compared to a control group of 156 children whose parents were healthy. Children's emotions were examined by means of two questionnaires: Youth Self Report (YSR), and Separation Individuation Test of Adolescence (SITA). It was found that children with a MS-affected parent displayed higher levels of depression and anxiety than children from the control group. Furthermore, children in the study group reported a greater degree of separation anxiety, compared to the control group. We conclude with clinical recommendations for developing therapeutic interventions for adolescents to MS-affected parents, as well as for their ill and healthy parents.
Subject(s)
Anxiety, Separation/psychology , Individuation , Multiple Sclerosis/psychology , Object Attachment , Parent-Child Relations , Adolescent , Adolescent Behavior/psychology , Adult , Affective Symptoms/psychology , Denial, Psychological , Family Health , Female , Humans , Male , NarcissismABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to examine, in conditions of prolonged terror, the possible influences of yet another terrorist attack as an additional traumatic event on children's reactions in the emotional, behavioral, and cognitive spheres, and to identify any mediating factors. The sample included 747 students in junior high schools in three Israeli cities. None of the participants was directly exposed to terrorist attacks, but they all lived with the possibility of daily terror. The research focused on fear as the most common and widespread reaction to terror and war. Short-term and long-term symptoms of fear were studied. It was found that an additional terrorist attack had no significant influence on children's emotional, cognitive, or behavioral spheres. Terror that has become habitual becomes negligible. Children learn to adjust to loss without experiencing grief.
