Ultrafast Geminate Recombination Facilitated by Hydrogen-Atom Transfer in Charge Transfer Reactions from Hydroxide and Methoxide Ions.

Previous transient absorption spectroscopy (TAS) hinted at an exceptionally rapid geminate recombination process in charge transfer reactions involving OH- or OD- ions in liquid water and CH3O- ions in liquid methanol. However, a comprehensive investigation of these dynamics using TAS has been hindered by the technical challenges stemming from the ultrafast spectral shift that spans a wide wavelength range from the mid-infrared to the visible on the subpicosecond time scale. To address these challenges, we have employed ultraviolet time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy of aqueous solutions, enabling us to observe and analyze the complete dynamics, including electron detachment, solvation, and geminate recombination. Our findings are consistent with those of Iglev et al. ( J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015, 6, 986-992), supporting the hypothesis that the structural diffusion of OH/OD/CH3O induced by a presolvated electron plays a pivotal role in facilitating ultrafast geminate recombination.

Ultrafast Electronic Relaxation in 6-Methyluracil and 5-Fluorouracil in Isolated and Aqueous Conditions: Substituent and Solvent Effects.

We report ultrafast extreme ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy of 6-methyluracil (6mUra) and 5-fluorouracil (5FUra) in the gas phase and 6mUra and 5-fluorouridine in an aqueous environment. In the gas phase, internal conversion (IC) occurs from 1ππ* to 1nπ* states in tens of femtoseconds, followed by intersystem crossing to the 3ππ* state in several picoseconds. In an aqueous solution, 6mUra undergoes IC almost exclusively to the ground state (S0) in about 100 fs, which is essentially the same process as that for unsubstituted uracil, but much faster than that for thymine (5-methyluracil). The different dynamics for C5 and C6 methylation suggest that IC from 1ππ* to S0 is facilitated by out-of-plane (OOP) motion of the C5 substituent. The slow IC for C5-substituted molecules in an aqueous environment is ascribed to the solvent reorganization that is required for this OOP motion to occur. The slow rate for 5FUrd may arise in part from an increased barrier height due to C5 fluorination.

Distortion Correction of Low-Energy Photoelectron Spectra of Liquids Using Spectroscopic Data for Solvated Electrons.

Time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (TRPES) enables real-time observation of ultrafast electronic dynamics in solutions. When extreme ultraviolet (EUV) probe pulses are employed, they can ionize solutes from all electronic states involved in the dynamics. However, EUV pulses also produce a strong ionization signal from a solvent that is typically 6 orders of magnitude greater than the pump-probe photoelectron signal of solutes. Alternatively, UV probe pulses enable highly sensitive and selective observation of photoexcited solutes because typical solvents such as water are transparent to UV radiation. An obstacle in such UV-TRPES measurements is spectral distortion caused by electron scattering and a yet to be identified mechanism in liquids. We have previously proposed the spectral retrieval (SR) method as an a posteriori approach to removing the distortion and overcoming this difficulty in UV-TRPES; however, its accuracy has not yet been verified by comparison with EUV-TRPES results. In the present study, we perform EUV-TRPES for charge transfer reactions in water, methanol, and ethanol, and verify SR analysis of UV-TRPES. We also estimate a previously undetermined energy-dependent intensity factor and expand the basis sets for SR analysis. The refined SR method is employed for reanalyzing the UV-TRPES data for the formation and relaxation dynamics of solvated electrons in various systems. The electron binding energy distributions for solvated electrons in liquid water, methanol, and ethanol are confirmed to be Gaussian centered at 3.78, 3.39, and 3.25 eV, respectively, in agreement with Nishitani et al. [ Sci. Adv. 2019, 5(8), eaaw6896]. An effective energy gap between the conduction band and the vacuum level at the gas-liquid interface is estimated to be 0.2 eV for liquid water and 0.1 eV for methanol and ethanol.

Ultrafast Ring Closure Reaction of Gaseous cis-Stilbene from S1(ππ*).

cis-Stilbene (cis-St) is a well-known benchmark system for cis-trans photoisomerization. cis-St also produces 4a,4b-dihydrophenanthrene (DHP) in solution with a quantum yield of less than 0.19. The ring closure reaction, however, has never been identified for gaseous cis-St, and a recent computational simulation predicted the quantum yield of DHP to be only 0.04. In the present study, we identified an ultrafast ring closure reaction of gaseous cis-St for the first time using extreme ultraviolet time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy. Surface hopping trajectory calculations at the SA3-XMS-CASPT2(2,2) level of theory reproduce the features of the observed time-resolved photoelectron spectra and predict the cis-St:DHP:trans-St branching ratio to be 0.55:0.41:0.04, in contrast with previous estimates. The results indicate that photoexcited cis-St favors ring closure over cis-trans isomerization under the isolated condition.

Formation of Long-Lived Dark States during Electronic Relaxation of Pyrimidine Nucleobases Studied Using Extreme Ultraviolet Time-Resolved Photoelectron Spectroscopy.

Ultrafast electronic relaxation of nucleobases from 1ππ* states to the ground state (S0) is considered essential for the photostability of DNA. However, transient absorption spectroscopy (TAS) has indicated that some nucleobases in aqueous solutions create long-lived 1nπ*/3ππ* dark states from the 1ππ* states with a high quantum yield of 0.4-0.5. We investigated electronic relaxation in pyrimidine nucleobases in both aqueous solutions and the gas phase using extreme ultraviolet (EUV) time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy. Femtosecond EUV probe pulses cause ionization from all electronic states involved in the relaxation process, providing a clear overview of the electronic dynamics. The 1nπ* quantum yields for aqueous cytidine and uracil (Ura) derivatives were found to be considerably lower (<0.07) than previous estimates reported by TAS. On the other hand, aqueous thymine (Thy) and thymidine exhibited a longer 1ππ* lifetime and a higher quantum yield (0.12-0.22) for the 1nπ* state. A similar trend was found for isolated Thy and Ura in the gas phase: the 1ππ* lifetimes are 39 and 17 fs and the quantum yield for 1nπ* are 1.0 and 0.45 for Thy and Ura, respectively. The result indicates that single methylation to the C5 position hinders the out-of-plane deformation that drives the system to the conical intersection region between 1ππ* and S0, providing a large impact on the photophysics/photochemistry of a pyrimidine nucleobase. The significant reduction of 1nπ* yield in aqueous solution is ascribed to the destabilization of the 1nπ* state induced by hydrogen bonding.

Charge Transfer Reactions from I- to Polar Protic Solvents Studied Using Ultrafast Extreme Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy.

Charge transfer reactions from I- to solvent water, methanol, and ethanol were studied using extreme ultraviolet time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (EUV-TRPES). This technique eliminates spectral broadening, previously seen in UV-TRPES, caused by electron inelastic scattering in liquids, and enables clear observation of the temporal evolution of the spectral shape. The peak position, width, and intensity of the electron binding energy distribution indicate electron detachment and subsequent solvation and thermalization processes. Geminate recombination between detached electrons and iodine atoms is discussed using a diffusion equation and a global fitting analysis based on a kinetics model.

Shallow and deep trap states of solvated electrons in methanol and their formation, electronic excitation, and relaxation dynamics.

We present condensed-phase first-principles molecular dynamics simulations to elucidate the presence of different electron trapping sites in liquid methanol and their roles in the formation, electronic transitions, and relaxation of solvated electrons (emet -) in methanol. Excess electrons injected into liquid methanol are most likely trapped by methyl groups, but rapidly diffuse to more stable trapping sites with dangling OH bonds. After localization at the sites with one free OH bond (1OH trapping sites), reorientation of other methanol molecules increases the OH coordination number and the trap depth, and ultimately four OH bonds become coordinated with the excess electrons under thermal conditions. The simulation identified four distinct trapping states with different OH coordination numbers. The simulation results also revealed that electronic transitions of emet - are primarily due to charge transfer between electron trapping sites (cavities) formed by OH and methyl groups, and that these transitions differ from hydrogenic electronic transitions involving aqueous solvated electrons (eaq -). Such charge transfer also explains the alkyl-chain-length dependence of the photoabsorption peak wavelength and the excited-state lifetime of solvated electrons in primary alcohols.

Exploration of Gas-Liquid Interfaces for Liquid Water and Methanol Using Extreme Ultraviolet Laser Photoemission Spectroscopy.

We present a study using extreme UV (EUV) photoemission spectroscopy of the valence electronic structures of aqueous and methanol solutions using a 10 kHz EUV light source based on high-order harmonic generation and a magnetic bottle time-of-flight electron spectrometer. Two aspects of the observed spectra are highlighted in this study. One is variation of the vertical ionization energy (VIE) for liquids as a function of the solute concentration, which is closely related to surface dipoles at the gas-liquid interface. The experimental results show that the VIE of liquid water increases slightly with increasing concentrations of NaCl and NaI and decreases with NaOH. The VIE of liquid methanol was also found to change slightly with NaI. On the other hand, tetrabutylammonium iodide (TBAI) and butylamine (BA) clearly reduce the VIE for liquid water, which is attributed to the formation of an electric double layer (EDL) by segregated solutes at the gas-liquid interface. As evidence for this, when the pH of an aqueous BA solution is reduced to protonate BA, the VIE shift gradually decreases because the protonated BA moves into the bulk to suppress the influence of the EDL. We computed the surface potentials for these solutions using molecular dynamics simulations, and the results supported our interpretation of the experimental results. Another observation is the variation of the relative energy and shape of individual photoelectron bands for solvents, which is related to alteration of the structure and constituents of the first solvation shell of ionized solvent molecules. All of the solutes cause changes in the photoelectron spectra at high concentration, one of the most prominent of which is the degree of splitting of the 3a1 band for liquid water and the 7a' band for liquid methanol, which are sensitive to hydrogen bonding in the liquids. The 3a1 splitting decreases with the increasing concentration of NaI, NaCl, and NaOH, indicating that Na+ penetrates into the hydrogen-bonding network to coordinate to a nonbonding electron of a water molecule. On the other hand, TBAI and BA cause smaller changes in the 3a1 splitting. Full interpretation of these spectroscopic features awaits extensive quantum chemical calculations and is beyond the scope of this study. However, these results illustrate the strong potential of EUV laser photoemission spectroscopy of liquids for exploration of interfacial and solution chemistry.

Design and characterization of a magnetic bottle electron spectrometer for time-resolved extreme UV and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy of liquid microjets.

We describe a magnetic bottle time-of-flight electron spectrometer designed for time-resolved photoemission spectroscopy of a liquid microjet using extreme UV and X-ray radiation. The spectrometer can be easily reconfigured depending on experimental requirements and the energy range of interest. To improve the energy resolution at high electron kinetic energy, a retarding potential can be applied either via a stack of electrodes or retarding mesh grids, and a flight-tube extension can be attached to increase the flight time. A gated electron detector was developed to reject intense parasitic signal from light scattered off the surface of the cylindrically shaped liquid microjet. This detector features a two-stage multiplication with a microchannel plate plus a fast-response scintillator followed by an image-intensified photon detector. The performance of the spectrometer was tested at SPring-8 and SACLA, and time-resolved photoelectron spectra were measured for an ultrafast charge transfer to solvent reaction in an aqueous NaI solution with a 200 nm UV pump pulses from a table-top ultrafast laser and the 5.5 keV hard X-ray probe pulses from SACLA.

Autophagosome formation in relation to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Autophagy is a process in which a myriad membrane structures called autophagosomes are formed de novo in a single cell, which deliver the engulfed substrates into lysosomes for degradation. The size of the autophagosomes is relatively uniform in non-selective autophagy and variable in selective autophagy. It has been recently established that autophagosome formation occurs near the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In this review, we have discussed recent advances in the relationship between autophagosome formation and endoplasmic reticulum. Autophagosome formation occurs near the ER subdomain enriched with phospholipid synthesizing enzymes like phosphatidylinositol synthase (PIS)/CDP-diacylglycerol-inositol 3-phosphatidyltransferase (CDIPT) and choline/ethanolamine phosphotransferase 1 (CEPT1). Autophagy-related protein 2 (Atg2), which is involved in autophagosome formation has a lipid transfer capacity and is proposed to directly transfer the lipid molecules from the ER to form autophagosomes. Vacuole membrane protein 1 (VMP1) and transmembrane protein 41b (TMEM41b) are ER membrane proteins that are associated with the formation of the subdomain. Recently, we have reported that an uncharacterized ER membrane protein possessing the DNAJ domain, called ERdj8/DNAJC16, is associated with the regulation of the size of autophagosomes. The localization of ERdj8/DNAJC16 partially overlaps with the PIS-enriched ER subdomain, thereby implying its association with autophagosome size determination.

ERdj8 governs the size of autophagosomes during the formation process.

In macroautophagy, membrane structures called autophagosomes engulf substrates and deliver them for lysosomal degradation. Autophagosomes enwrap a variety of targets with diverse sizes, from portions of cytosol to larger organelles. However, the mechanism by which autophagosome size is controlled remains elusive. We characterized a novel ER membrane protein, ERdj8, in mammalian cells. ERdj8 localizes to a meshwork-like ER subdomain along with phosphatidylinositol synthase (PIS) and autophagy-related (Atg) proteins. ERdj8 overexpression extended the size of the autophagosome through its DnaJ and TRX domains. ERdj8 ablation resulted in a defect in engulfing larger targets. C. elegans, in which the ERdj8 orthologue dnj-8 was knocked down, could perform autophagy on smaller mitochondria derived from the paternal lineage but not the somatic mitochondria. Thus, ERdj8 may play a critical role in autophagosome formation by providing the capacity to target substrates of diverse sizes for degradation.

Ultrafast Dynamics of Water Radiolysis: Hydrated Electron Formation, Solvation, Recombination, and Scavenging.

The ultrafast formation, solvation, and geminate recombination of hydrated electrons upon vacuum ultraviolet photoexcitation of liquid water and the static and dynamic scavenging by NO3- are investigated using femtosecond time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy. The solvation time constant for excess electrons is typical of that for liquid water but increases slightly with increasing excitation energy. The electron survival probability for geminate recombination is found to be much lower than the literature values owing to previously unobserved ultrafast geminate recombination in a period of 5 ps. NO3- induces the ultrafast (static) scavenging of photoexcited electronic states of liquid water and the dynamic scavenging of detached electrons with a reaction rate that is dependent on the excitation energy. The formation of hydrated electrons at 7.7 eV is ascribed to a H-atom-transfer process, but it is plausible that additional formation channels open at higher energies.

Starvation-induced autophagy via calcium-dependent TFEB dephosphorylation is suppressed by Shigyakusan.

Kampo, a system of traditional Japanese therapy utilizing mixtures of herbal medicine, is widely accepted in the Japanese medical system. Kampo originated from traditional Chinese medicine, and was gradually adopted into a Japanese style. Although its effects on a variety of diseases are appreciated, the underlying mechanisms remain mostly unclear. Using a quantitative tf-LC3 system, we conducted a high-throughput screen of 128 kinds of Kampo to evaluate the effects on autophagy. The results revealed a suppressive effect of Shigyakusan/TJ-35 on autophagic activity. TJ-35 specifically suppressed dephosphorylation of ULK1 and TFEB, among several TORC1 substrates, in response to nutrient deprivation. TFEB was dephosphorylated by calcineurin in a Ca2+ dependent manner. Cytosolic Ca2+ concentration was increased in response to nutrient starvation, and TJ-35 suppressed this increase. Thus, TJ-35 prevents the starvation-induced Ca2+ increase, thereby suppressing induction of autophagy.

Binding energy of solvated electrons and retrieval of true UV photoelectron spectra of liquids.

The electronic energy and dynamics of solvated electrons, the simplest yet elusive chemical species, is of interest in chemistry, physics, and biology. Here, we present the electron binding energy distributions of solvated electrons in liquid water, methanol, and ethanol accurately measured using extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photoelectron spectroscopy of liquids with a single-order high harmonic. The distributions are Gaussian in all cases. Using the EUV and UV photoelectron spectra of solvated electrons, we succeeded in retrieving sharp electron kinetic energy distributions from the spectra broadened and energy shifted by inelastic scattering in liquids, overcoming an obstacle in ultrafast UV photoelectron spectroscopy of liquids. The method is demonstrated for the benchmark systems of charge transfer to solvent reaction and ultrafast internal conversion of hydrated electron from the first excited state.

Solvated electron formation from the conduction band of liquid methanol: Transformation from a shallow to deep trap state.

We report solvated electron (esolv -) formation dynamics from the conduction band of liquid methanol studied using femtosecond time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy. Liquid methanol is excited with vacuum UV (9.3 eV) pump pulses, and the subsequent electron dynamics are probed with UV pulses. The photoelectron signal exhibits a short-lived component (τ = 85 fs) without spectral evolution followed by a long-lived component with continuous spectral evolution over tens of picoseconds. We ascribe the former to a superexcited state, most likely the Wannier exciton, and the latter to the ground electronic state of esolv -. In order to extract accurate energetics from the observed photoelectron spectra, we employ a spectral retrieval method to account for spectral broadening and shifting due to inelastic scattering of photoelectrons in the liquid. The electron binding energy (eBE) of the initial trap state of an electron is determined to be about 1.5 eV, and its biexponential increase up to 3.4 eV is observed with time constants of 2 and 31 ps, which are greater than 0.27 and 13 ps observed for esolv - created by the charge-transfer-to-solvent reaction from CH3O- to liquid methanol. The solvation dynamics of esolv - created by the electron trapping exhibit a pseudoisosbestic point at a pump-probe delay time of around 15 ps, and the peak energy of the eBE distribution rapidly changes around that time. These results indicate that there exist two trap states, both of which exhibit increasing eBE with time; however, the eBE of the shallow trap state increases only up to 2.1 eV, and transformation to a deep trap state at 25 ps occurs to reach an eBE of 3.4 eV.

Ultrafast Internal Conversion and Solvation of Electrons in Water, Methanol, and Ethanol.

Ultrafast internal conversion from the first excited state of a solvated electron in water, methanol, and ethanol is investigated using time-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy of liquid microjets and a spectral retrieval method. Photoelectron spectra corrected for inelastic scattering clearly reveal well-separated signals from the excited and ground states, and the latter enables us to analyze the solvation dynamics in the ground state after internal conversion. Measurements with 25 fs time resolution identify a rapid increase in the vertical electron binding energy of the solvated electron owing to nuclear wave packet motions in the excited state and allow us to precisely determine the internal conversion time.

Femtosecond time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy of anatase TiO2 nanoparticles using XFEL.

The charge-carrier dynamics of anatase TiO2 nanoparticles in an aqueous solution were studied by femtosecond time-resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy using an X-ray free electron laser in combination with a synchronized ultraviolet femtosecond laser (268 nm). Using an arrival time monitor for the X-ray pulses, we obtained a temporal resolution of 170 fs. The transient X-ray absorption spectra revealed an ultrafast Ti K-edge shift and a subsequent growth of a pre-edge structure. The edge shift occurred in ca. 100 fs and is ascribed to reduction of Ti by localization of generated conduction band electrons into shallow traps of self-trapped polarons or deep traps at penta-coordinate Ti sites. Growth of the pre-edge feature and reduction of the above-edge peak intensity occur with similar time constants of 300-400 fs, which we assign to the structural distortion dynamics near the surface.

Genuine binding energy of the hydrated electron.

The unknown influence of inelastic and elastic scattering of slow electrons in water has made it difficult to clarify the role of the solvated electron in radiation chemistry and biology. We combine accurate scattering simulations with experimental photoemission spectroscopy of the hydrated electron in a liquid water microjet, with the aim of resolving ambiguities regarding the influence of electron scattering on binding energy spectra, photoelectron angular distributions, and probing depths. The scattering parameters used in the simulations are retrieved from independent photoemission experiments of water droplets. For the ground-state hydrated electron, we report genuine values devoid of scattering contributions for the vertical binding energy and the anisotropy parameter of 3.7 ± 0.1 eV and 0.6 ± 0.2, respectively. Our probing depths suggest that even vacuum ultraviolet probing is not particularly surface-selective. Our work demonstrates the importance of quantitative scattering simulations for a detailed analysis of key properties of the hydrated electron.