Effects of induced motor fatigue on walking mechanics and energetics.

Lower-body robotic exoskeletons can be used to reduce the energy demand of locomotion and increase the endurance of wearers. Understanding how motor fatigue affects walking performance may lead to better exoskeleton designs to support the changing physical capacity of an individual due to motor fatigue. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of motor fatigue on walking mechanics and energetics. Treadmill walking with progressively increased incline gradient was used to induce motor fatigue. Twenty healthy young participants walked on an instrumented treadmill at 1.25 m/s and 0° of incline for 5 min before (PRE) and after (POST) motor fatigue. We examined lower-limb joint mechanics, metabolic cost, and the efficiency of positive mechanical work (η+work). Compared to PRE, participants had increased net metabolic power by ∼14% (p < 0.001) during POST. Participants also had increased total-limb positive mechanical power (Total P+mech) by ∼4% during POST (p < 0.001), resulting in a reduced η+work by ∼8% (p < 0.001). In addition, the positive mechanical work contribution of the lower-limb joints during POST was shifted from the ankle to the knee while the negative mechanical work contribution was shifted from the knee to the ankle (all p < 0.017). Although greater knee positive mechanical power was generated to compensate for the reduction in ankle positive power after motor fatigue, the disproportionate increase in metabolic cost resulted in a reduced walking efficiency. The findings of this study suggest that powering the ankle joint may help delay the onset of the lower-limb joint work redistribution observed during motor fatigue.

Characterizing the Effects of Explosive Ordnance Disposal Operations on the Human Body While Wearing Heavy Personal Protective Equipment.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a comprehensive characterization of explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) personal protective equipment (PPE) by evaluating its effects on the human body, specifically the poses, tasks, and conditions under which EOD operations are performed. BACKGROUND: EOD PPE is designed to protect technicians from a blast. The required features of protection make EOD PPE heavy, bulky, poorly ventilated, and difficult to maneuver in. It is not clear how the EOD PPE wearer physiologically adapts to maintain physical and cognitive performance during EOD operations. METHOD: Fourteen participants performed EOD operations including mobility and inspection tasks with and without EOD PPE. Physiological measurement and kinematic data recording were used to record human physiological responses and performance. RESULTS: All physiological measures were significantly higher during the mobility and the inspection tasks when EOD PPE was worn. Participants spent significantly more time to complete the mobility tasks, whereas mixed results were found in the inspection tasks. Higher back muscle activations were seen in participants who performed object manipulation while wearing EOD PPE. CONCLUSION: EOD operations while wearing EOD PPE pose significant physical stress on the human body. The wearer's mobility is impacted by EOD PPE, resulting in decreased speed and higher muscle activations. APPLICATION: The testing and evaluation methodology in this study can be used to benchmark future EOD PPE designs. Identifying hazards posed by EOD PPE lays the groundwork for developing mitigation plans, such as exoskeletons, to reduce physical and cognitive stress caused by EOD PPE on the wearers without compromising their operational performance.

Benchmarking Protocols for Evaluating Grasp Strength, Grasp Cycle Time, Finger Strength, and Finger Repeatability of Robot End-effectors.

This paper describes a set of metrics and supporting benchmarking protocols for determining the performance characteristics of robot end-effectors. In the short-term, these tools are proving useful as a common ground for assessing and comparing end-effectors. The long-term goal is a standard framework for providing technical specifications for robotic end-effectors to help pair technologies to application spaces. This paper presents a subset of the metrics - grasp strength, grasp cycle time, finger strength, and finger repeatability - with accompanying measurement techniques and supporting test artifacts. The application of these metrics and protocols is demonstrated using example implementations to characterize a variety of robot end-effectors, with example data sets and test designs provided for downloading.

Robot-Embodied Neuronal Networks as an Interactive Model of Learning.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The reductionist approach of neuronal cell culture has been useful for analyses of synaptic signaling. Murine cortical neurons in culture spontaneously form an ex vivo network capable of transmitting complex signals, and have been useful for analyses of several fundamental aspects of neuronal development hitherto difficult to clarify in situ. However, these networks lack the ability to receive and respond to sensory input from the environment as do neurons in vivo. Establishment of these networks in culture chambers containing multi-electrode arrays allows recording of synaptic activity as well as stimulation. METHOD: This article describes the embodiment of ex vivo neuronal networks neurons in a closed-loop cybernetic system, consisting of digitized video signals as sensory input and a robot arm as motor output. RESULTS: In this system, the neuronal network essentially functions as a simple central nervous system. This embodied network displays the ability to track a target in a naturalistic environment. These findings underscore that ex vivo neuronal networks can respond to sensory input and direct motor output. CONCLUSION: These analyses may contribute to optimization of neuronal-computer interfaces for perceptive and locomotive prosthetic applications. Ex vivo networks display critical alterations in signal patterns following treatment with subcytotoxic concentrations of amyloid-beta. Future studies including comparison of tracking accuracy of embodied networks prepared from mice harboring key mutations with those from normal mice, accompanied with exposure to Abeta and/or other neurotoxins, may provide a useful model system for monitoring subtle impairment of neuronal function as well as normal and abnormal development.

Synaptic signal streams generated by ex vivo neuronal networks contain non-random, complex patterns.

Cultured embryonic neurons develop functional networks that transmit synaptic signals over multiple sequentially connected neurons as revealed by multi-electrode arrays (MEAs) embedded within the culture dish. Signal streams of ex vivo networks contain spikes and bursts of varying amplitude and duration. Despite the random interactions inherent in dissociated cultures, neurons are capable of establishing functional ex vivo networks that transmit signals among synaptically connected neurons, undergo developmental maturation, and respond to exogenous stimulation by alterations in signal patterns. These characteristics indicate that a considerable degree of organization is an inherent property of neurons. We demonstrate herein that (1) certain signal types occur more frequently than others, (2) the predominant signal types change during and following maturation, (3) signal predominance is dependent upon inhibitory activity, and (4) certain signals preferentially follow others in a non-reciprocal manner. These findings indicate that the elaboration of complex signal streams comprised of a non-random distribution of signal patterns is an emergent property of ex vivo neuronal networks.

Designing speech-based interfaces for telepresence robots for people with disabilities.

People with cognitive and/or motor impairments may benefit from using telepresence robots to engage in social activities. To date, these robots, their user interfaces, and their navigation behaviors have not been designed for operation by people with disabilities. We conducted an experiment in which participants (n=12) used a telepresence robot in a scavenger hunt task to determine how they would use speech to command the robot. Based upon the results, we present design guidelines for speech-based interfaces for telepresence robots.

Transient epileptiform signaling during neuronal network development: regulation by external stimulation and bimodal GABAergic activity.

A predominance of excitatory activity, with protracted appearance of inhibitory activity, accompanies cortical neuronal development. It is unclear whether or not inhibitory neuronal activity is solicited exclusively by excitatory neurons or whether the transient excitatory activity displayed by developing GABAergic neurons contributes to an excitatory threshold that fosters their conversion to inhibitory activity. We addressed this possibility by culturing murine embryonic neurons on multi-electrode arrays. A wave of individual 0.2-0.4 mV signals ("spikes") appeared between approx. 20-30 days in culture, then declined. A transient wave of high amplitude (>0.5 mV) epileptiform activity coincided with the developmental decline in spikes. Bursts (clusters of ≥3 low-amplitude spikes within 0.7s prior to returning to baseline) persisted following this decline. Addition of the GABAergic antagonist bicuculline initially had no effect on signaling, consistent with delayed development of GABAergic synapses. This was followed by a period in which bicuculline inhibited overall signaling, confirming that GABAergic neurons initially display excitatory activity in ex vivo networks. Following the transient developmental wave of epileptiform signaling, bicuculline induced a resurgence of epileptiform signaling, indicating that GABAergic neurons at this point displayed inhibitory activity. The appearance of transition after the developmental and decline of epileptiform activity, rather than immediately after the developmental decline in lower-amplitude spikes, suggests that the initial excitatory activity of GABAergic neurons contributes to their transition into inhibitory neurons, and that inhibitory GABAergic activity is essential for network development. Prior studies indicate that a minority (25%) of neurons in these cultures were GABAergic, suggesting that inhibitory neurons regulate multiple excitatory neurons. A similar robust increase in signaling following cessation of inhibitory activity in an artificial neural network containing 20% inhibitory neurons supported this conclusion. Even a minor perturbation in GABAergic function may therefore foster initiation and/or amplification of seizure activity, as well as perturbations in long-term potentiation.