ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To determine the source and extent of a locally acquired hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection outbreak. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A cluster of notified cases of HEV infection linked to a single restaurant (X) was identified in May 2014. People with laboratory-confirmed HEV infection in New South Wales between January 2013 and December 2014 were interviewed about potential risk factors for HEV infection. Co-diners at restaurant X and patients with suspected but unexplained viral hepatitis were retrospectively tested. Foods eaten by the infected persons were compared with those of seronegative co-diners. HEV RNA detected in sera from infected persons was sequenced and genotyped. Implicated foods were traced back to their sources. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Potential sources of infection, including overseas travel and foods eaten, and origin of implicated food products. RESULTS: In 55 serologically confirmed cases of HEV infection, 24 people had not travelled overseas during their incubation periods. Of the 24, 17 reported having eaten at restaurant X, 15 of whom could be interviewed. All reported consuming pork liver pâté, compared with only four of seven uninfected co-diners (P < 0.05). The other seven people with locally acquired infections each reported consuming a pork product during their incubation periods. HEV RNA was detected in 16 of the 24 cases; all were of genotype 3. Sequencing indicated greater than 99% homology among restaurant X isolates. HEV RNA was isolated from pork sausages from a batch implicated in one of the locally acquired infections not linked with restaurant X. The pork livers used for pâté preparation by restaurant X were traced to a single Australian farm. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first reported HEV outbreak in Australia. HEV should be considered in patients presenting with a compatible illness, even without a history of overseas travel. Pork products should be thoroughly cooked before consumption.
Subject(s)
Hepatitis E/epidemiology , Adolescent , Adult , Aged , Australia/epidemiology , Child , Child, Preschool , Cluster Analysis , Disease Outbreaks , Female , Hepatitis E virus/genetics , Humans , Male , Meat Products , Middle Aged , New South Wales/epidemiology , RNA, Viral/analysis , Red Meat , Restaurants , Retrospective Studies , Serotyping , Young AdultABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Despite the World Health Organization (WHO)-reported elimination of measles in Australia, importation of cases especially in travellers from Asia continues in Sydney, Australia's largest city. Laboratory confirmation supports clinico-epidemiological evidence of measles virus infection, and is needed to establish elimination. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the performance of a random access real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay using the moderate complexity SmartCycler(®) platform, and measles antigen detection by immunofluorescence (IFA), for the detection of measles virus in patient samples. STUDY DESIGN: One hundred samples comprising nose and throat swabs, nasopharyngeal aspirates and urine, collected from patients with suspected measles were tested in parallel using IFA and nucleic acid testing using the SmartCycler(®) and LightCycler(®) RT-PCR platforms. The LightCycler(®) RT-PCR was used as the reference assay against which the SmartCycler(®) RT-PCR and IFA were compared. RESULTS: Using the LightCycler(®) RT-PCR, measles virus was detected in 35 clinical samples. There was 100% concordance between the results of the SmartCycler(®) and the LightCycler(®)-based RT-PCR. Measles genotypes detected included B3, D8, and D9. Testing urine in addition to NTS did not improve diagnostic yield. In contrast, the sensitivity and specificity of IFA compared to the reference LightCycler(®) RT-PCR was 34.3% and 96.7%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The performance of the SmartCycler(®) is comparable to the LightCycler(®) for the detection of measles virus. However, IFA had poor sensitivity and should not be used to confirm measles virus infection where nucleic acid testing is available.
Subject(s)
Fluorescent Antibody Technique , Measles virus/genetics , Measles virus/immunology , Measles/diagnosis , Measles/virology , Reagent Kits, Diagnostic , Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction , Adolescent , Adult , Antigens, Viral , Australia/epidemiology , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Fluorescent Antibody Technique/methods , Fluorescent Antibody Technique/standards , Genotyping Techniques , Humans , Infant , Male , Measles/epidemiology , Measles virus/classification , Reagent Kits, Diagnostic/standards , Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods , Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction/standards , Reproducibility of Results , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/standards , Sensitivity and Specificity , Young AdultABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Few studies have assessed the longitudinal impact of providing unpaid care for stroke survivors. We aimed to describe the positive and negative impact of providing unpaid care and to identify independent predictors of poor carer outcome. METHODS: The Auckland Regional Community Stroke study was a prospective population-based stroke incidence study conducted in Auckland, New Zealand, over a 12-month period in 2002-2003. Stroke survivors and their unpaid carers were assessed at 6 and 18 months after stroke onset using the Short Form 36 questionnaire and the Bakas Caregiving Outcomes Scale. RESULTS: Data were available from 167 stroke survivor-carer pairs at 6 months and 62 pairs at 18 months. Unpaid carers reported lower health-related quality of life at 6 months after stroke than their age- and sex-matched counterparts in the New Zealand population. The impact of providing care was predominantly negative; however, approximately one third of the carers had improved relationships with the stroke survivor. No reliable predictors of carer burden were identified. CONCLUSIONS: This study re-emphasises the heavy burden of stroke on unpaid carers but was unable to identify factors that predicted carers at the greatest risk of experiencing a poor outcome. Effective strategies are needed to reduce the burden of providing unpaid care.
