Epidermal growth factor and calcitriol synergistically induce osteoblast maturation.

Calcitriol (1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)) plays a key role in the differentiation of osteoblasts, the cells responsible for the formation and maintenance of healthy bone matrix. Recently it has emerged that calcitriol influences the trafficking or stability of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptors. However, how these agents might work together in regulating growth and differentiation has not been examined. Using the human osteoblast cell line, MG63, we were able to induce a profound differentiation response by treating these cells with a combination of calcitriol (100 nM) and EGF (10 ng/ml). Co-stimulation of MG63 osteoblasts with calcitriol and EGF led to synergistic increases in osteocalcin and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), proteins expressed by differentiating cells. Inhibition of differentiation was accomplished by MEK and protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors. Other ligands known to signal via receptor tyrosine kinases could not substitute for EGF in the maturation response. These novel findings may help identify new processes that drive osteoblast differentiation.

Luteinizing hormone receptor knockout (LuRKO) mice and transgenic human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-overexpressing mice (hCG alphabeta+) have bone phenotypes.

Considerable attention has been paid to the role of sex steroids during periods of major skeletal turnover, but the interaction of the gonadotropic hormones, which include LH, FSH, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), within bone tissue have been overlooked. The question is pertinent due to the recent detection of extragonadal expression of gonadotropin receptors. Western blotting, immunolocalization, and RT-PCR supported the presence of osteoblast LH receptors. However, osteoblast cells failed to bind [(125)I]hCG and treatment with hCG failed to generate either cAMP or phosphorylated ERK 1/2. Bone mineral density (BMD) and bone histomorphometry were examined in the following models: 1) LH receptor null mutant (LuRKO) mice; 2) transgenic mice overexpressing hCG (hCG alphabeta+); and 3) ovariectomized (OVX) hCG alphabeta+ model. Male LuRKO mice showed a decrease in BMD after 5 months, apparently secondary to suppressed gonadal steroid production. Similarly, 9- to 10-wk-old female LuRKO mice exhibited decreases in histomorphometric parameters tested. The data indicate that loss of LH signaling results in a reduction in bone formation or an increase in bone resorption. By contrast, there were significant increases in BMD and histomorphometric indices for female, but not male, hCG alphabeta+ mice, indicating that chronic exposure to hCG results in bone formation or a decrease in bone resorption. However, OVX of the hCG alphabeta+ mice resulted in a significant reduction in BMD comparable to OVX WT controls. Although gonadotropin levels are tightly linked to sex steroid titers, it appears that their effects on the skeleton are indirect.

Matrix metalloproteinases have a role in palatogenesis.

Mammalian palatogenesis depends on palatal shelf elevation, medial edge epithelium (MEE) breakdown, and mesenchyme flow. These all require matrix remodeling, which is controlled in part by the family of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). We used an organ culture system to examine the effect of a general MMP inhibitor (BB3103) on mouse palatogenesis. Palates cultured in 20 micro M BB3103 contained no active MMP-2, and only one palate fused from a sample size of 15. In this single palate, MMP-3 was present at higher levels than in palates that failed to fuse. MMP-3 is known to be involved in epithelial mesenchymal transformation (EMT), and its persistence may explain why this palate fused. This implies a role for MMPs in normal palatogenesis, and disruption of their activity may result in cleft palate.

Thyroid follicular cells secrete plasminogen activators and can form angiostatin from plasminogen.

Angiostatin, a 38 kDa fragment of plasminogen, potently inhibits the growth of blood vessels. Angiostatin is generated from plasminogen by urokinase-type (uPA) and tissue-type (tPA) plasminogen activators in the presence of free sulphydryl donors. Angiogenesis inhibitors may be important in regulating angiogenesis in developing goitre. We have examined angiostatin formation in human primary thyrocyte cultures and a rat thyrocyte cell line (FRTL-5). We found that human thyroid cells in culture secrete plasminogen activators (both tPA and uPA) as well as matrix metalloproteinase 2 into the medium. When human thyrocyte conditioned medium was incubated with plasminogen (10 microg/ml) and N-acetylcysteine (100 microM) for 24 h, a 38 kDa fragment of plasminogen, which is consistent with angiostatin, was generated. The appearance of the 38 kDa fragment was increased by agents that increase cAMP (forskolin and 8 BrcAMP). FRTL-5 cells, which do not secrete uPA or tPA, did not generate angiostatin. Thyroid cells produce several angiogenic growth factors, and human thyrocyte conditioned medium stimulated growth of endothelial cells. When the conditioned medium was incubated with plasminogen and N-acetylcysteine, this stimulatory effect was lost, consistent with the production of a growth inhibitory factor. We conclude that thyroid cells can produce angiostatin from plasminogen in vitro, and this may play a role in vivo in limiting goitre size.

Type I collagen synthesis by human osteoblasts in response to placental lactogen and chaperonin 10, a homolog of early-pregnancy factor.

Recent studies have indicated that maternal skeletal metabolism undergoes significant changes during gestation. The agents that are responsible for eliciting these changes in bone turnover during pregnancy have yet to be defined. We therefore sought to investigate whether chaperonin 10 (Cpn10), a homolog of early-pregnancy factor, or human placental lactogen (PL) were capable of influencing the synthesis of type I collagen by human osteoblasts in vitro. Both Cpn10 and PL are major components of the maternal circulation during pregnancy, but how they might contribute to bone metabolism has not been determined. Type I collagen represents the most abundant component of bone tissue, accounting for approximately 90% of the organic compartment. Both Cpn10 and PL were capable of stimulating the synthesis of type I collagen by human osteoblasts in culture. The inclusion of 17 beta-estradiol or prolactin, however, failed to influence the ability of cells to mobilize type I collagen. These novel findings support a role for PL and Cpn10 in the metabolism of bone tissue during pregnancy. Maternal bone collagen metabolism is clearly an important event during pregnancy, and the identification of the factors responsible will aid our understanding of the regulation of skeletal metabolism during gestation.