Providing comprehensive genetic-based ophthalmic care.

The diagnosis of an inherited retinal dystrophy can have a significant impact on both the physical and emotional lives of patients and their families. In order to optimize the health and quality of life for these individuals, a comprehensive approach to clinical care starting at the time of diagnosis and continuing throughout their lifespan is critical. A multidisciplinary team approach integrating ophthalmic and genetic counseling services can optimize the diagnostic process and long-term management of these patients. When vision loss is first appreciated, the diagnostic specificity of an ophthalmic evaluation can be enhanced by a detailed genetic work-up. This evaluation can help confirm the diagnosis and allow for accurate risk counseling of the patient and their family. Genetic counseling is critical at the time of diagnosis and is an opportunity to provide education about the diagnosis, discuss low-vision rehabilitation, and explore impacts on academics and employment. In addition, counseling can help patients deal with the current psychological aspects of their vision loss, prepare for the lifelong impact of their diagnosis and over time adjust to the impact of progressive vision loss.

Dual and opposing modulatory effects of serotonin on crayfish lateral giant escape command neurons.

Serotonin modulates afferent synaptic transmission to the lateral giant neurons of crayfish, which are command neurons for escape behavior. Low concentrations, or high concentrations reached gradually, are facilitatory, whereas high concentrations reached rapidly are inhibitory. The modulatory effects rapidly reverse after brief periods of application, whereas longer periods of application are followed by facilitation that persists for hours. These effects of serotonin can be reproduced by models that involve multiple interacting intracellular signaling systems that are each stimulated by serotonin. The dependence of the neuromodulatory effect on dose, rate, and duration of modulator application may be relevant to understanding the effects of natural neuromodulation on behavior and cognition and to the design of drug therapies.

Evaluation of the ELOVL4 gene in patients with age-related macular degeneration.

Stargardt-like macular degeneration (STGD(3)) and autosomal dominant macular degeneration (adMD) share phenotypic characters with atrophic age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Mutations in a photoreceptor cell-specific factor involved in the elongation of very long chain fatty acids (ELOVL(4)) were shown to be associated with STGD(3), adMD, and pattern dystrophy. We screened 778 patients with AMD and 551 age-matched controls to define the role of sequence variants in the ELOVL(4) gene in age-related macular degeneration. We detected three sequence variants in the non-coding region and eight variants in the coding region. No statistically significant association was observed between sequence variants in the ELOVL(4) gene and susceptibility to AMD. However, for the detection of modest effects of multiple alleles in a complex disease, the analysis of larger cohorts of patients may be required.

Remapping of the RP15 locus for X-linked cone-rod degeneration to Xp11.4-p21.1, and identification of a de novo insertion in the RPGR exon ORF15.

X-linked forms of retinitis pigmentosa (XLRP) are among the most severe, because of their early onset, often leading to significant vision loss before the 4th decade. Previously, the RP15 locus was assigned to Xp22, by linkage analysis of a single pedigree with "X-linked dominant cone-rod degeneration." After clinical reevaluation of a female in this pedigree identified her as affected, we remapped the disease to a 19.5-cM interval (DXS1219-DXS993) at Xp11.4-p21.1. This new interval overlapped both RP3 (RPGR) and COD1. Sequencing of the previously published exons of RPGR revealed no mutations, but a de novo insertion was detected in the new RPGR exon, ORF15. The identification of an RPGR mutation in a family with a severe form of cone and rod degeneration suggests that RPGR mutations may encompass a broader phenotypic spectrum than has previously been recognized in "typical" retinitis pigmentosa.

Novel mutations in XLRS1 causing retinoschisis, including first evidence of putative leader sequence change.

Juvenile retinoschisis is an X-linked recessive disease caused by mutations in the XLRS1 gene. We screened 31 new unrelated patients and families for XLRS1 mutations in addition to previously reported mutations for 60 of our families (Retinoschisis Consortium, Hum Mol Genet 1998;7:1185-1192). Twenty-three different mutations including 12 novel ones were identified in 28 patients. Mutations identified in this study include 19 missense mutations, two nonsense mutations, one intragenic deletion, four microdeletions, one insertion, and one intronic sequence substitution that is likely to result in a splice site defect. Two novel mutations, c.38T-->C (L13P) and c.667T-->C (C223R), respectively, present the first genetic evidence for the functional significance of the putative leader peptide sequence and for the functional significance at the carboxyl terminal of the XLRS1 protein beyond the discoidin domain. Mutations in 25 of the families were localized to exons 4-6, emphasizing the critical functional significance of the discoidin domain of the XLRS1 protein.

Juvenile retinoschisis: a model for molecular diagnostic testing of X-linked ophthalmic disease.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: X-linked juvenile retinoschisis (RS) provides a starting point to define clinical paradigms and understand the limitations of diagnostic molecular testing. The RS phenotype is specific, but the broad severity range is clinically confusing. Molecular diagnostic testing obviates unnecessary examinations for boys at-risk and identifies carrier females who otherwise show no clinical signs. METHODS: The XLRS1 gene has 6 exons of 26-196 base-pair size. Each exon is amplified by a single polymerase chain reaction and then sequenced, starting with exons 4 through 6, which contain mutation "hot spots." RESULTS: The 6 XLRS1 exons are sequenced serially. If alterations are found, they are compared with mutations in our > 120 XLRS families and with the > 300 mutations reported worldwide. Point mutations, small deletions, or rearrangements are identified in nearly 90% of males with a clinical diagnosis of RS. XLRS1 has very few sequence polymorphisms. Carrier-state testing produces 1 of 3 results: (1) positive, in which the woman has the same mutation as an affected male relative or known in other RS families; (2) negative, in which she lacks the mutation of her affected male relative; and (3) uninformative, in which no known mutation is identified or no information exists about the familial mutation. CONCLUSIONS: Molecular RS screening is an effective diagnostic tool that complements the clinician's skills for early detection of at-risk males. Useful outcomes of carrier testing depend on several factors: (1) a male relative with a clear clinical diagnosis; (2) a well-defined inheritance pattern; (3) high disease penetrance; (4) size and organization of the gene; and (5) the types of disease-associated mutations. Ethical questions include molecular diagnostic testing of young at-risk females before the age of consent, the impact of this information on the emotional health of the patient and family, and issues of employability and insurance coverage.

Yeast MEK-dependent signal transduction: response thresholds and parameters affecting fidelity.

Ste7p and Mkk1p are MEK (MAPK/ERK kinase) family members that function in the mating and cell integrity signal transduction pathways in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We selected STE7 and MKK1 mutations that stimulated their respective pathways in the absence of an inductive signal. Strikingly, serine-to-proline substitutions at analogous positions in Ste7p (position 368) and Mkk1p (position 386) were recovered by independent genetic screens. Such an outcome suggests that this substitution in other MEKs would exhibit similar properties. The Ste7p-P368 variant has higher basal enzymatic activity than Ste7p but still requires induction to reach full activation. The higher activity associated with Ste7p-P368 allows it to compensate for defects in the cell integrity pathway, but it does so only when it is overproduced or when Ste5p is missing. This behavior suggests that Ste5p, which has been proposed to be a tether for the kinases in the mating pathway, contributes to Ste7p specificity.

Dynamics and organization of MAP kinase signal pathways.

In the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, four separate but structurally related mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation pathways are known. The best understood of these regulates mating. Pheromone binding to receptor informs cells of the proximity of a mating partner and induces differentiation to a mating competent state. The MAPK activation cascade mediating this signal is made up of Ste11 (a MEK kinase [MEKK]), Ste7 (a MAPK/ERK kinase [MEK]), and the redundant MAPK-related Fus3 and Kss1 enzymes. Another MAPK activation pathway is important for cell integrity and regulates cell wall construction. This cascade consists of Bck1 (a MEKK), the redundant Mkk1 and Mkk2 enzymes (MEKs), and Mpk1 (a MAPK). We exploited these two pathways to learn about the coordination and signal transmission fidelity of MAPK activation cascades. Two lines of evidence suggest that the activities of the mating and cell integrity pathways are coordinated during mating differentiation. First, cells deficient in Mpk1 are susceptible to lysis when they make a mating projection in response to pheromone. Second, Mpk1 activation during pheromone induction coincides with projection formation. The mechanism underlying this coordination is still unknown to us. Our working model is that projection formation generates a mobile second messenger for activation of the cell integrity pathway. Analysis of a STE7 mutation gave us some unanticipated but important insights into parameters important for fidelity of signal transmission. The Ste7 variant has a serine to proline substitution at position 368. Ste7-P368 has higher basal activity than the wild-type enzyme but still requires Ste11 for its function. Additionally, the proline substitution enables the variant to transmit the signal from mammalian Raf expressed in yeast. This novel activity suggests that Ste7-P368 is inherently more permissive than Ste7 in its interactions with MEKKs. Yet, Ste7-P368 cross function in the cell integrity pathway occurs only when it is highly overproduced or when Ste5 is missing. This behavior suggests that Ste5, which has been proposed to be a tether for the kinases in the mating pathway, contributes to Ste7 specificity and fidelity of signal transmission.

Stimulatory effects of yeast and mammalian 14-3-3 proteins on the Raf protein kinase.

Intracellular signaling from receptor tyrosine kinases in mammalian cells results in activation of a signal cascade that includes the guanine nucleotide-binding protein Ras and the protein kinases Raf, MEK [mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) or extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase], and MAPK. MAPK activation that is dependent on the coupling of Ras and Raf was reconstituted in yeast. Yeast genes were isolated that, when overexpressed, enhanced the function of Raf. One of them is identical to BMH1, which encodes a protein similar to members of the mammalian 14-3-3 family. Bacterially synthesized mammalian 14-3-3 protein stimulated the activity of Raf prepared from yeast cells expressing c-Raf-1. Thus, the 14-3-3 protein may participate in or be required for activation of Raf.

Novel members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase activator family in Xenopus laevis.

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases comprise an evolutionarily conserved family of proteins that includes at least three vertebrate protein kinases (p42, p44, and p55 MAPK) and five yeast protein kinases (SPK1, MPK1, HOG1, FUS3, and KSS1). Members of this family are activated by a variety of extracellular agents that influence cellular proliferation and differentiation. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, there are multiple physiologically distinct MAP kinase activation pathways composed of structurally related kinases. The recently cloned vertebrate MAP kinase activators are structurally related to MAP kinase activators in these yeast pathways. These similarities suggest that homologous kinase cascades are utilized for signal transduction in many, if not all, eukaryotes. We have identified additional members of the MAP kinase activator family in Xenopus laevis by a polymerase chain reaction-based analysis of embryonic cDNAs. One of the clones identified (XMEK2) encodes a unique predicted protein kinase that is similar to the previously reported activator (MAPKK) in X. laevis. XMEK2, a highly expressed maternal mRNA, is developmentally regulated during embryogenesis and expressed in brain and muscle. Expression of XMEK2 in yeast cells suppressed the growth defect associated with loss of the yeast MAP kinase activator homologs, MKK1 and MKK2. Partial sequence of a second cDNA clone (XMEK3) identified yet another potential MAP kinase activator. The pattern of expression of XMEK3 is distinct from that of p42 MAPK and XMEK2. The high degree of amino acid sequence similarity of XMEK2, XMEK3, and MAPKK suggests that these three are related members of an amphibian family of protein kinases involved in the activation of MAP kinase. Discovery of this family suggests that multiple MAP kinase activation pathways similar to those in yeast cells exist in vertebrates.

Analysis of meiotic development in Coprinus cinereus.

The basidiomycete Coprinus cinereus offers many advantages for molecular analyses of meiosis. Fruiting body development is highly synchronous, and chromosome behaviour can be visualized using the light microscope. Furthermore, the small genome size (3.7 X 10(7) bp/haploid nucleus) facilitates molecular cloning procedures, and genetic characterization is reasonably advanced. To analyse controls of the meiotic process, we have isolated genomic sequences which are differentially expressed during Coprinus development by comparative cDNA hybridization to cloned genomic segments. We have concluded that fruiting body morphogenesis is associated with extensive changes in steady-state RNA levels in this fungus.