Macrophages and dendritic cells treatment of spinal cord injury: from the bench to the clinic.

The failure of the spinal cord to recover after injury has been associated with the immune privilege mechanism that suppresses immune activity throughout the central nervous system. Primed macrophages and dendritic cells were shown to promote neurological recovery in preclinical models of spinal cord injury. A cell therapy consisting of autologous incubated macrophages is now being tested on spinal cord injury patients in clinical trials.

Therapeutic vaccine for acute and chronic motor neuron diseases: implications for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Therapeutic vaccination with Copaxone (glatiramer acetate, Cop-1) protects motor neurons against acute and chronic degenerative conditions. In acute degeneration after facial nerve axotomy, the number of surviving motor neurons was almost two times higher in Cop-1-vaccinated mice than in nonvaccinated mice, or in mice injected with PBS emulsified in complete Freund's adjuvant (P < 0.05). In mice that express the mutant human gene Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase G93A (SOD1), and therefore simulate the chronic human motor neuron disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Cop-1 vaccination prolonged life span compared to untreated matched controls, from 211 +/- 7 days (n = 15) to 263 +/- 8 days (n = 14; P < 0.0001). Our studies show that vaccination significantly improved motor activity. In line with the experimentally based concept of protective autoimmunity, these findings suggest that Cop-1 vaccination boosts the local immune response needed to combat destructive self-compounds associated with motor neuron death. Its differential action in CNS autoimmune diseases and neurodegenerative disorders, depending on the regimen used, allows its use as a therapy for either condition. Daily administration of Cop-1 is an approved treatment for multiple sclerosis. The protocol for non-autoimmune neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, remains to be established by future studies.

T cell-mediated neuroprotection involves antithrombin activity.

Functional loss after injury to the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) has been attributed not only to the immediate loss of neurons but also to secondary neuronal degeneration caused by the toxicity of physiological compounds present in abnormally high amounts as a result of the injury. One such compound appears to be the protease thrombin. Here we show that the beneficial effect of T cells directed against myelin self-antigens can be attributed, at least in part, to the ability of these 'autoimmune' T cells to produce antithrombin III. Using transgenic mice lacking the thrombin receptor PAR-1, we also present molecular evidence indicating that down-regulation of PAR-1 by genetic manipulation leads to increased post-traumatic survival of CNS neurons. We further show that the ability of autoimmune T cells to produce thrombin inhibitors and to exert post-traumatic neuroprotection are both independent of their PAR-1 expression. These findings suggest that thrombin plays a key role in post-injury neuronal survival, and that its post-traumatic toxicity can be down-regulated by appropriate alteration of the amounts of PAR-1 receptors or of antithrombin III, the latter achieved by T cell-mediated autoimmunity.

T-cell-based immunity counteracts the potential toxicity of glutamate in the central nervous system.

Injuries to the central nervous system (CNS) evoke self-destructive processes, which eventually lead to a much greater loss of tissue than that caused by the trauma itself. The agents of self-destruction include physiological compounds, such as glutamate, which are essential for the proper functioning of the CNS, but become cytotoxic when their normal concentrations are exceeded. The CNS is equipped with buffering mechanisms that are specific for each compound. Here we show, using Balb/c mice (a strain resistant to induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis), that after intravitreal injection of any concentration of glutamate (a neurotransmitter that becomes toxic when in excess) or ammonium-ferrous sulfate hexahydrate (which increases the formation of toxic oxygen species), the loss of retinal ganglion cells in mice devoid of mature T cells (nude mice) is significantly greater than in matched wild-type controls. We further show that this outcome can be partially reversed by supplying the T cell-defective mice with splenocytes derived from the wild-type mice. The results suggest that potentially toxic physiological compounds, when present in excessive amounts, can recruit and activate a T-cell-dependent self-protective immune mechanism. This may represent a prototype mechanism for the physiological regulation of potentially destructive CNS events by T-cell-mediated immune activity, when the local buffering mechanisms cannot adequately cope with them.

Increased post-traumatic survival of neurons in IL-6-knockout mice on a background of EAE susceptibility.

Axonal injury initiates a process of neuronal degeneration, with resulting death of neuronal cell bodies. We show here that in C57BL/6J mice, previously shown to have a limited ability to manifest a post-traumatic protective immunity, the rate of neuronal survival is increased if IL-6 is deficient during the first 24 hours after optic nerve injury. Immunocytochemical staining preformed 7 days after the injury revealed an increased number of activated microglia in the IL-6-deficient mice compared to the wild-type mice. In addition, IL-6-deficient mice showed an increased resistance to glutamate toxicity. These findings suggest that the presence of IL-6 during the early post-traumatic phase, at least in mice that are susceptible to autoimmune disease development, has a negative effect on neuronal survival. This further substantiates the contention that whether immune-derived factors are beneficial or harmful for nerve recovery after injury depends on the phenotype of the immune cells and the timing and nature of their dialog with the damaged neural tissue.

Neuronal survival after CNS insult is determined by a genetically encoded autoimmune response.

Injury to the CNS is often followed by a spread of damage (secondary degeneration), resulting in neuronal losses that are substantially greater than might have been predicted from the severity of the primary insult. Studies in our laboratory have shown that injured CNS neurons can benefit from active or passive immunization with CNS myelin-associated antigens. The fact that autoimmune T-cells can be both beneficial and destructive, taken together with the established phenomenon of genetic predisposition to autoimmune diseases, raises the question: will genetic predisposition to autoimmune diseases affect the outcome of traumatic insult to the CNS? Here we show that the survival rate of retinal ganglion cells in adult mice or rats after crush injury of the optic nerve or intravitreal injection of a toxic dosage of glutamate is up to twofold higher in strains that are resistant to the CNS autoimmune disease experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) than in susceptible strains. The difference was found to be attributed, at least in part, to a beneficial T-cell response that was spontaneously evoked after CNS insult in the resistant but not in the susceptible strains. In animals of EAE-resistant but not of EAE-susceptible strains devoid of mature T-cells (as a result of having undergone thymectomy at birth), the numbers of surviving neurons after optic nerve injury were significantly lower (by 60%) than in the corresponding normal animals. Moreover, the rate of retinal ganglion cell survival was higher when the optic nerve injury was preceded by an unrelated CNS (spinal cord) injury in the resistant strains but not in the susceptible strains. It thus seems that, in normal animals of EAE-resistant strains (but not of susceptible strains), the injury evokes an endogenous protective response that is T-cell dependent. These findings imply that a protective T-cell-dependent response and resistance to autoimmune disease are regulated by a common mechanism. The results of this study compel us to modify our understanding of autoimmunity and autoimmune diseases, as well as the role of autoimmunity in non-autoimmune CNS disorders. They also obviously have far-reaching clinical implications in terms of prognosis and individual therapy.

Protective autoimmunity is a physiological response to CNS trauma.

Primary damage caused by injury to the CNS is often followed by delayed degeneration of initially spared neurons. Studies in our laboratory have shown that active or passive immunization with CNS myelin-associated self-antigens can reduce this secondary loss. Here we show, using four experimental paradigms in rodents, that CNS trauma spontaneously evokes a beneficial T cell-dependent immune response, which reduces neuronal loss. (1) Survival of retinal ganglion cells in rats was significantly higher when optic nerve injury was preceded by an unrelated CNS (spinal cord) injury. (2) Locomotor activity of rat hindlimbs (measured in an open field using a locomotor rating scale) after contusive injury of the spinal cord (T8) was significantly better (by three to four score grades) after passive transfer of myelin basic protein (MBP)-activated splenocytes derived from spinally injured rats than in untreated injured control rats or rats similarly treated with splenocytes from naive animals or with splenocytes from spinally injured rats activated ex vivo with ovalbumin or without any ex vivo activation. (3) Neuronal survival after optic nerve injury was 40% lower in adult rats devoid of mature T cells (caused by thymectomy at birth) than in normal rats. (4) Retinal ganglion cell survival after optic nerve injury was higher (119 +/- 3.7%) in transgenic mice overexpressing a T cell receptor (TcR) for MBP and lower (85 +/- 1.3%) in mice overexpressing a T cell receptor for the non-self antigen ovalbumin than in matched wild types. Taken together, the results imply that CNS injury evokes a T cell-dependent neuroprotective response.

Self-Protective mechanism awakened by glutamate in retinal ganglion cells.

The progression of degeneration in chronic optic neuropathies or in animal models of optic nerve injury is thought to be caused, at least in part, by an increase in glutamate to abnormally high concentrations. We show here that glutamate, when injected in subtoxic amounts into the vitreal body of the rat eye, transduces a self-protecting signal that renders the retinal ganglion cells resistant to further toxicity, whether glutamate-derived or not. This neuroprotective effect is attained within 24 h and lasts at least 4 days. Western blot analysis of rat retinas revealed increased amounts of bcl-2 four days after injection of glutamate in either subtoxic or toxic (120 nmol) amounts, but not after saline injection. The effects of intravitreal glutamate or saline injection on the secretion of neurotrophins by retinal ganglion cells was evaluated in rat aqueous humor 6 h, 1 day, and 4 days after injection. Nerve growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and neurotrophin-3 showed similar kinetic patterns in all of the eyes; that is, they increased to a peak 1 day after the injection and returned to normal by day 4. However, increased amounts the neurotrophin receptor TrkA within the retinal ganglion cell layer and nerve fiber layer were detected 1 day after injection of glutamate in either toxic or subtoxic amounts, but not after saline injection. This finding points to the possible involvement of neurotrophin receptors in regulation of the cellular responses to glutamate challenge. Identification of the intracellular signals that trigger the glutamate-induced self-protective mechanism would shed light on the genetic balance needed for survival, and guide the development of drugs for the up-regulation of desired genes and their products.

Vaccination for protection of retinal ganglion cells against death from glutamate cytotoxicity and ocular hypertension: implications for glaucoma.

Our group recently demonstrated that autoimmune T cells directed against central nervous system-associated myelin antigens protect neurons from secondary degeneration. We further showed that the synthetic peptide copolymer 1 (Cop-1), known to suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, can be safely substituted for the natural myelin antigen in both passive and active immunization for neuroprotection of the injured optic nerve. Here we attempted to determine whether similar immunizations are protective from retinal ganglion cell loss resulting from a direct biochemical insult caused, for example, by glutamate (a major mediator of degeneration in acute and chronic optic nerve insults) and in a rat model of ocular hypertension. Passive immunization with T cells reactive to myelin basic protein or active immunization with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-derived peptide, although neuroprotective after optic nerve injury, was ineffective against glutamate toxicity in mice and rats. In contrast, the number of surviving retinal ganglion cells per square millimeter in glutamate-injected retinas was significantly larger in mice immunized 10 days previously with Cop-1 emulsified in complete Freund's adjuvant than in mice injected with PBS in the same adjuvant (2,133 +/- 270 and 1,329 +/- 121, respectively, mean +/- SEM; P < 0.02). A similar pattern was observed when mice were immunized on the day of glutamate injection (1,777 +/- 101 compared with 1,414 +/- 36; P < 0.05), but not when they were immunized 48 h later. These findings suggest that protection from glutamate toxicity requires reinforcement of the immune system by antigens that are different from those associated with myelin. The use of Cop-1 apparently circumvents this antigen specificity barrier. In the rat ocular hypertension model, which simulates glaucoma, immunization with Cop-1 significantly reduced the retinal ganglion cell loss from 27.8% +/- 6.8% to 4.3% +/- 1.6%, without affecting the intraocular pressure. This study may point the way to a therapy for glaucoma, a neurodegenerative disease of the optic nerve often associated with increased intraocular pressure, as well as for acute and chronic degenerative disorders in which glutamate is a prominent participant.

Thrombin attenuation is neuroprotective in the injured rat optic nerve.

The functional loss that often follows injury of the mammalian CNS has been attributed not only to the immediate neural loss, but also to secondary neuronal degeneration caused by toxic biochemical mediators in the environment of the injured nerve. We report here that a high thrombin content, produced as a result of injury-induced activation of prothrombin, appears to be an important mediator of secondary damage. Measurement of post-traumatic neuronal survival in vivo revealed that post-traumatic local application of the thrombin inhibitor N-alpha-(2-naphthylsulphonylglycyl)-4-(D,L)-amidinophenylalanine piperidide acetate in the rat optic nerve subjected to mild partial crush injury left twice as many retinal ganglion cells with functioning axons as in controls. Thus, by readjusting thrombin activity, thereby possibly obtaining a moderate post-traumatic increase and thus gaining the benefit of thrombin without its toxic effects, it may be possible to create an environment that is more favourable for post-traumatic survival.

Vaccination for neuroprotection in the mouse optic nerve: implications for optic neuropathies.

T-cell autoimmunity to myelin basic protein was recently shown to be neuroprotective in injured rat optic nerves. In the present study, using the mouse optic nerve, we examined whether active immunization rather than passive transfer of T-cells can be beneficial in protecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) from post-traumatic death. Before severe crush injury of the optic nerve, SJL/J and C3H.SW mice were actively immunized with encephalitogenic or nonencephalitogenic peptides of proteolipid protein (PLP) or myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), respectively. At different times after the injury, the numbers of surviving RGCs in both strains immunized with the nonencephalitogenic peptides pPLP 190-209 or pMOG 1-22 were significantly higher than in injured controls treated with the non-self-antigen ovalbumin or with a peptide derived from beta-amyloid, a non-myelin-associated protein. Immunization with the encephalitogenic myelin peptide pPLP 139-151 was beneficial only when the disease it induced, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, was mild. The results of this study show that survival of RGCs after axonal injury can be enhanced by vaccination with an appropriate self-antigen. Furthermore, the use of nonencephalitogenic myelin peptides for immunization apparently allows neuroprotection without incurring the risk of an autoimmune disease. Application of these findings might lead to a promising new approach for treating optic neuropathies such as glaucoma.

Diffusion anisotropy MRI for quantitative assessment of recovery in injured rat spinal cord.

Spinal cord injury and its devastating consequences are the subject of intensive research aimed at reversing or at least minimizing functional loss. Research efforts focus on either attenuating the post-injury spread of damage (secondary degeneration) or inducing some regeneration. In most of these studies, as well as in clinical situations, evaluation of the state of the injured spinal cord poses a serious difficulty. To address this problem, we carried out a diffusion-weighted MRI experiment and developed an objective routine for quantifying anisotropy in injured rat spinal cords. Rats were subjected to a contusive injury of the spinal cord caused by a controlled weight drop. Untreated control rats were compared with rats treated with T cells specific to the central nervous system self-antigen myelin basic protein, a form of therapy recently shown to be neuroprotective. After the rats were killed their excised spinal cords were fixed in formalin and imaged by multislice spin echo MRI, using two orthogonal diffusion gradients. Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values and anisotropy ratio (AI) maps were extracted on a pixel-by-pixel basis. The calculated sum of AI values (SAI) for each slice was defined as a parameter representing the total amount of anisotropy. The mean-AI and SAI values increased gradually with the distance from the site of the lesion. At the site itself, the mean-AI and SAI values were significantly higher in the spinal cords of the treated animals than in the controls (P = 0.047, P = 0.028, respectively). These values were consistent with the score of functional locomotion. The difference was also manifested in the AI maps, which revealed well-organized neural structure in the treated rats but not in the controls. The SAI values, AI histograms, and AI maps proved to be useful parameters for quantifying injury and recovery in an injured spinal cord. These results encourage the development of diffusion anisotropy MRI as a helpful approach for quantifying the extent of secondary degeneration and measuring recovery after spinal cord injury. Magn Reson Med 45:1-9, 2001.

RGC death in mice after optic nerve crush injury: oxidative stress and neuroprotection.

PURPOSE: To establish a method for morphometric analysis of retrogradely labeled retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) of the mouse retina, to be used for the study of molecular aspects of RGC survival and neuroprotection in this model; to evaluate the effect of overexpression of Cu-Zn-superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD) on RGC survival after severe crush injury to the optic nerve, and to assess the effect of the alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonist brimonidine, recently shown to be neuroprotective, on RGC survival. METHODS: A severe crush injury was inflicted unilaterally in the orbital portion of the optic nerves of wild-type and transgenic (Tg-SOD) mice expressing three to four times more human CuZnSOD than the wild type. In each mouse all RGCs were labeled 72 hours before crush injury by stereotactic injection of the neurotracer dye FluoroGold (Fluorochrome, Denver, CO) into the superior colliculus. Survival of RGCs was then assessed morphometrically, with and without systemic injection of brimonidine. RESULTS: Two weeks after crush injury, the number of surviving RGCs was significantly lower in the Tg-SOD mice (596.6 +/- 71.9 cells/mm(2)) than in the wild-type control mice (863. 5 +/- 68 cells/mm(2)). There was no difference between the numbers of surviving RGCs in the uninjured retinas of the two strains (3708 +/- 231.3 cells/mm(2) and 3904 +/- 120 cells/mm(2), respectively). Systemic injections of brimonidine significantly reduced cell death in the Tg-SOD mice, but not in the wild type. CONCLUSIONS: Overexpression of CuZnSOD accelerates RGC death after optic nerve injury in mice. Activation of the alpha2-adrenoreceptor pathway by brimonidine enhances survival of RGCs in an in vivo transgenic model of excessive oxidative stress.

Metabolic and ionic responses to global brain ischemia in the newborn dog in vivo: II. Post-natal age aspects.

The main difference between newborn and adult brains is expressed in the relative resistance of the newborn brain to oxygen deprivation. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of global ischemia in canine puppies of three different ages on the metabolic, ionic and electrical activity of the brain and to study the basic mechanisms underlying the relative resistance of the newborn brain in ischemic episode. The puppies were divided into three age groups. The young group included 0-6-day-old puppies (n = 16), the intermediate group included 7-19-day-old puppies (n = 21), and the 'adult' group included puppies aged 20 days or more (n = 17). Statistical analysis of the results led to the following conclusions: The younger the puppy, the longer is the time until the occurrence of the secondary reflectance increase SRI (13.0 +/- 1.9 min vs. 5.3 +/- 0.5 min). The younger the puppy, the longer the time until onset of potassium leakage from the cells (0.9 +/- 0.1 min vs. 0.35 +/- 0.05 min) and the lower the amount of potassium leakage (9.6 +/- 2.8 mM vs. 21.7 +/- 4.8 mM). The rate of pumping of the potassium ions into the cells during the recovery stage was higher in the oldest group (1.2 +/- 0.2 mM min-1 vs. 0.38 +/- 0.1 mM min-1). It was possible to speculate that in the young puppies there is uncoupling of the oxidative phosphorylation from respiration and as a result, there is a lower, if any, rate of ATP synthesis. It seems that the newborn brain is able to cope with a decrease in available energy for a longer period of time. This is apparently due to differences in membrane characteristics and an improved ability to retain ionic equilibrium across both sides of the membrane.

Passive or active immunization with myelin basic protein promotes recovery from spinal cord contusion.

Partial injury to the spinal cord can propagate itself, sometimes leading to paralysis attributable to degeneration of initially undamaged neurons. We demonstrated recently that autoimmune T cells directed against the CNS antigen myelin basic protein (MBP) reduce degeneration after optic nerve crush injury in rats. Here we show that not only transfer of T cells but also active immunization with MBP promotes recovery from spinal cord injury. Anesthetized adult Lewis rats subjected to spinal cord contusion at T7 or T9, using the New York University impactor, were injected systemically with anti-MBP T cells at the time of contusion or 1 week later. Another group of rats was immunized, 1 week before contusion, with MBP emulsified in incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA). Functional recovery was assessed in a randomized, double-blinded manner, using the open-field behavioral test of Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan. The functional outcome of contusion at T7 differed from that at T9 (2.9+/-0.4, n = 25, compared with 8.3+/-0.4, n = 12; p<0.003). In both cases, a single T cell treatment resulted in significantly better recovery than that observed in control rats treated with T cells directed against the nonself antigen ovalbumin. Delayed treatment with T cells (1 week after contusion) resulted in significantly better recovery (7.0+/-1; n = 6) than that observed in control rats treated with PBS (2.0+/-0.8; n = 6; p<0.01; nonparametric ANOVA). Rats immunized with MBP obtained a recovery score of 6.1+/-0.8 (n = 6) compared with a score of 3.0+/-0.8 (n = 5; p<0.05) in control rats injected with PBS in IFA. Morphometric analysis, immunohistochemical staining, and diffusion anisotropy magnetic resonance imaging showed that the behavioral outcome was correlated with tissue preservation. The results suggest that T cell-mediated immune activity, achieved by either adoptive transfer or active immunization, enhances recovery from spinal cord injury by conferring effective neuroprotection. The autoimmune T cells, once reactivated at the lesion site through recognition of their specific antigen, are a potential source of various protective factors whose production is locally regulated.

Brain metabolic and ionic responses to global brain ischemia in the newborn dog in vivo: 1. Methodological aspects.

A variety of methods has been used in order to obtain a state of acute cerebral ischemia. Most of these methods suffered from drawbacks such as irreversible ischemia, difficult to obtain total ischemia and heart injury. The aim of this study was to develop a new method for induction of global or partial cerebral ischemia in the newborn dog at various post-natal ages. A multi-parameter monitoring system (MPA) measures the metabolic (mitochondria NADH oxidation/reduction state), hemodynamic (reflectance), ionic (extracellular potassium and calcium) and electrical changes (ECoG) continuously and simultaneously in the puppy's brain in vivo. A hole was made in the chest cavity, the two large arteries supplying blood to the brain, the brachiocephalic and the subclavian arteries (B + S) were isolated and occluded during the monitoring. In most of the animals, occlusion of these two arteries alone resulted in partial ischemia. For obtaining 100% ischemia, we occluded both the B + S arteries as well as the aortic arch. Immediately at the onset of ischemia, an increase (reduction) of NADH begins. During complete ischemia the average time until maximal increase was 4 min, compared to ischemia of up to 50% of the maximal reduction of the NADH where the average time was 1 min. After reperfusion of the brain, mitochondria recovery was very rapid and the average time until return of this parameter to its pre-ischemic level was 1.4 +/- 0.2 min. The ionic changes which occurred immediately upon the onset of ischemia were the accumulation of extracellular potassium ions was recorded. The rate of potassium ion accumulation was dependent on the severity of the ischemia (range 0.19 +/- 0.08-2.2 +/- 0.4 mM min-1). The increase in the extracellular potassium ion concentration occurs in two stages, an initial slow stage and a second rapid stage (13.0 +/- 1.8 mM). The results presented in this paper suggest and prove the usefulness of a new approach for global and partial ischemia in the newborn dogs. In addition, our results assess the brain metabolic, ionic, hemodynamic and electrical responses to brain ischemia in the puppies.

Neuroprotection: a new treatment modality for glaucoma?

It is now commonly accepted that glaucoma is a neurodegenerative disease of the optic nerve. Thus, at any given time, there are neurons that, though still viable, are vulnerable to the hostile extracellular milieu and are therefore amenable to neuroprotective therapy. Neuroprotection refers to any intervention, either external to the optic nerve or internally, that will lead to an intracellular change in the balance between survival and death signals in favor of survival. Several potential sites and modalities for such intervention may exist. When designing neuroprotective therapy, ways must be sought to recruit the physiologic self-repair mechanisms awakened by the primary or secondary risk factors. These mechanisms appear to be insufficiently effective when in their natural state, but they may be simulated or boosted by appropriate therapeutic compounds or cells.

The effect of hyperbaric hyperoxia on brain function in the newborn dog in vivo.

Age is a natural factor that has been found to significantly affect sensitivity to hyperbaric hyperoxia (HBO). Exposure to HBO may lead to damages in the energy metabolism of the brain cells. The aim of this study was to test the effect of HBO on the metabolic, hemodynamic and electrical activities in the newborn dog. The study was performed using one-day- to 70-day-old puppies. The puppies were placed in a pressure chamber. The pressure of pure O2 in the chamber was raised by 5 atmospheres (ATA, 75 psi = 6 ATA) within 10 min. The first biochemical change to take place during HBO was oxidation of mitochondrial NADH. The age of the puppy was found to affect the time to the initiation of seizures. In the puppies under the age of 24 days, the average time was 35.1 +/- 5.9 min. In the puppies of 24 days old and older, the average time was 5.1 +/- 0.8 min. In the younger puppies, there was a later occurrence of blood vessel contractions and a longer life span compared to the older puppies. The comparison between the puppies of different ages during exposure to HBO showed differences in the metabolic response, hemodynamic changes and electrical activity. These differences can partially explain the higher resistance in the younger puppies to HBO.

T cell immunity to copolymer 1 confers neuroprotection on the damaged optic nerve: possible therapy for optic neuropathies.

We recently reported that the posttraumatic spread of degeneration in the damaged optic nerve can be attenuated by the adoptive transfer of autoimmune T cells specific to myelin basic protein. However, it would be desirable to obtain immune neuroprotection free of any possible autoimmune disease. In an attempt to obtain disease-free immune neuroprotection, we used the synthetic four-amino acid polymer copolymer 1 (Cop-1), which is known not to be encephalitogenic despite its cross-reactivity with myelin basic protein. We show here that active immunization with Cop-1 administered in adjuvant, as well as adoptive transfer of T cells reactive to Cop-1, can inhibit the progression of secondary degeneration after crush injury of the rat optic nerve. These results have implications for the treatment of optic neuropathies.

Autoimmune T cells retard the loss of function in injured rat optic nerves.

We recently demonstrated that autoimmune T cells protect neurons from secondary degeneration after central nervous system (CNS) axotomy in rats. Here we show, using both morphological and electrophysiological analyses, that the neuroprotection is long-lasting and is manifested functionally. After partial crush injury of the rat optic nerve, systemic injection of autoimmune T cells specific to myelin basic protein significantly diminished the loss of retinal ganglion cells and conducting axons, and significantly retarded the loss of the visual response evoked by light stimulation. These results support our challenge to the traditional concept of autoimmunity as always harmful, and suggest that in certain situations T cell autoimmunity may actually be beneficial. It might be possible to employ T cell intervention to slow down functional loss in the injured CNS.