Volunteer Community Health and Agriculture Workers Help Reduce Childhood Malnutrition in Tajikistan.

Childhood malnutrition is a nationally-recognized problem in Tajikistan. In 2017, 6% of children under 5 years were wasted and 18% were stunted. Through the Tajikistan Health and Nutrition Activity (THNA), funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development's Feed the Future, IntraHealth International trained 1,370 volunteer community health workers (CHWs) and 500 community agricultural workers (CAWs) in 500 rural communities to improve nutrition among children and pregnant and breastfeeding women. CHWs and CAWs mutually encourage health behavior change, reinforce better agricultural practices, and promote maternal and child health and nutritious diets through household visits, community events, and peer support groups. CHWs refer children with malnutrition and diarrhea and pregnant women who are not registered for antenatal care to health facilities. THNA supported CHWs/CAWs through peer learning, refresher trainings, supportive supervision, and quarterly material incentives. We observed gains in knowledge, attitudes, and practices across health; nutrition; water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH); and agriculture in target communities. From 2016 to 2019, we observed statistically significant (P<.05) improvements in children receiving a minimum acceptable diet; children with diarrhea receiving more liquids; women making 4 or more antenatal care visits; women reporting improved WASH; and farmers demonstrating improved agricultural practices. A February 2020 screening of 94.6% of children under 5 years in target communities found the prevalence of children with signs of wasting at 2.2%. Partnerships between CHWs, CAWs, and rural health workers facilitated these results. Paired agricultural and health interventions proved successful in improving nutrition of children and may be applicable in other contexts. Although effective in delivering interventions, CHWs/CAWs experience attrition, need motivation, and require intensive support. Assuming responsibility for this community-based volunteer workforce presents a major challenge for Tajikistan's national and local governments.

Strategies to Implement Pre-exposure Prophylaxis with Men Who Have Sex with Men in Ukraine.

Ukrainian men who have sex with men (MSM) remain highly stigmatized group with HIV prevalence as high as 23%. Despite documented effectiveness of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), PrEP remains unavailable in Ukraine. The aim of this study was to elicit MSM preferences in order to inform program development to facilitate successful delivery of PrEP to Ukrainian MSM. 1184 MSM were recruited through social networking applications to complete a stated preference (choice-based conjoint) survey. Respondents completed 14 choice tasks presenting experimentally-varied combinations of five attributes related to PrEP administration (dosing frequency, dispensing venue, prescription practices, adherence support, and costs). Latent class analysis was used to estimate the relative importance of each attribute and preferences across nine possible PrEP delivery programs. Preferences clustered into five groups. PrEP affordability was the most influential attribute across groups, followed by dosing strategy. Only one group preferred injectable PrEP (n = 216), while the other four groups disliked daily PrEP and strongly preferred the 'on demand' option. One group (n = 258) almost exclusively considered cost in their decision making. One group (n = 151) had very low level of interest in PrEP initiation correlated with low self-perceived risk for HIV. The two most at-risk groups (n = 415) were also more sensitive to changes in program delivery. PrEP uptake among MSM is most likely to be successful when PrEP is affordable, its implementation is targeted, provided as "on-demand" with associated education, and when more thorough medical care and related testing is provided to at-risk populations. Its introduction will need affirmation by the Ukrainian government, and guidelines that reflect safety, efficacy, and patient preferences.

Decline in HIV seroprevalence in street youth 2006-2012, St. Petersburg, Russia: moving toward an AIDS-free generation.

A 2006 survey of street youth at pre-mapped street youth locations in St. Petersburg, Russia, found extremely high HIV seroprevalence (37.4%) among 313 street youth aged 15-19 years of age, strongly associated with injection drug use, which was reported by 50.6% of participants. In response, multi-sectoral social support and prevention measures were instituted. In 2012, we conducted a follow-up survey of 15- to 19-year-old street youth using the same study procedures as in 2006. Of 311 participants, 45 (14.5%) reported injection drug use; 31 participants (10.0%, 95% confidence interval, 6.0%-16.2%) were HIV-seropositive . Predictors independently associated with HIV seropositivity included injection drug use (adjusted prevalence ratio 53.1) and transactional sex (adjusted prevalence ratio 1.3). None of the 178 participants aged 15-17 years were HIV-positive. Thirty of 31 (96.8%) HIV-seropositive individuals reported injection drug use. Street youth in St Petersburg had a 73% decrease in HIV seroprevalence from 2006 to 2012, primarily due to decreased initiation of injection drug use. This marked reduction in the HIV epidemic among street youth occurred after implementation of extensive support programs and socio-economic improvements.

Behaviors Associated With a Risk of HIV Transmission From HIV-Positive Street Youth to Non-Street Youth in Ukraine.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the extent to which HIV-infected street youth (living part or full time on the streets) exhibit behaviors associated with HIV transmission in their interactions with youth not living on the streets ("non-street youth"). We aimed to determine prevalences and predictors of such "bridging behaviors": inconsistent condom use and needle sharing between HIV-positive street youth and non-street youth. METHODS: A total of 171 street youth in 3 Ukrainian cites were identified as HIV infected after testing of eligible participants aged 15 to 24 years after random selection of venues. Using data from these youth, we calculated prevalence estimates of bridging behaviors and assessed predictors using logistic regression. RESULTS: Overall, two-thirds of HIV-infected street youth exhibited bridging behaviors; subgroups with high prevalences of bridging included females (78.3%) and those involved in transactional sex (84.2%). In multivariable analysis, inconsistent condom use with non-street youth was associated with being female (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR], 1.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1-1.4), working (aPR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.03-1.4), multiple partners (aPR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.2-1.6), and "never" (aPR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.1-1.6) or "sometimes" (aPR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.02-1.8) versus "always" sleeping on the street. Needle sharing with non-street youth was associated with being male (aPR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.02-2.0), orphaned (aPR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.8-3.0), and 2 years or less living on the streets (aPR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.5-2.1). CONCLUSIONS: Bridging behaviors between HIV-infected street youth and non-street youth are common. Addressing the comprehensive needs of street and other at-risk youth is a critical prevention strategy.

Orphaned and abused youth are vulnerable to pregnancy and suicide risk.

OBJECTIVE: Little is known about the magnitude and consequences of violence against children for those living outside family care. We sought to estimate the frequency of childhood abuse and examine its association with lifetime pregnancy involvement (LPI) and past year suicide ideation among orphaned youth. METHODS: We analyzed data collected via cross-sectional interviewer-administered surveys completed by 293 orphaned youth aged 16-23 years living outside of family care in St. Petersburg, Russia. We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate adjusted odds ratios (AORs) of LPI and past year suicide ideation associated with childhood physical and sexual abuse. Other risk factors were also examined (e.g., social vulnerability, sexual and substance use behaviors), and characteristics of orphaned youth with LPI and past year suicide ideation were described. RESULTS: The prevalence of childhood abuse was higher among females than among males (23.3% versus 15.6% for physical abuse, and 20.3% versus 5.6% for sexual abuse), as was the prevalence of LPI and past year suicide ideation among those with histories of abuse. Experiences of childhood abuse were strong risk factors for both LPI and past year suicide ideation, with significant variation by gender. While both types of abuse were significantly associated with LPI and past year suicide ideation among females, physical abuse was significantly associated with LPI and sexual abuse was associated with suicide ideation for males. Of the other characteristics examined, strong modifiable risk factors included having no one to turn to for help and no involvement in activities outside of class. Among those with LPI (n=36), nearly 20% had been pregnant or gotten someone pregnant ≥2 times, most (61.8%) reported at least one induced abortion, and current use of effective contraception was nearly non-existent. Among those with past year suicide ideation (n=30), nearly half (44.8%) reported attempting suicide. CONCLUSIONS: There is an urgent need for interventions to prevent and mitigate the negative influence of childhood abuse experiences. Programs providing services to orphaned youth should increase access to sexual education, effective contraceptives, and mental health counseling.

HIV Prevention and Rehabilitation Models for Women Who Inject Drugs in Russia and Ukraine.

Women who inject drugs require gender-specific approaches to drug rehabilitation, modification of risk behaviors, and psychosocial adaptation. Improved outcomes have been demonstrated when the specific needs of women's subpopulations have been addressed. Special services for women include prenatal care, child care, women-only programs, supplemental workshops on women-focused topics, mental health services, and comprehensive programs that include several of the above components. To address the special needs of women injecting drug user (IDU) subpopulations, such as HIV-positive pregnant women and women with young children, recently released female prisoners, and street-involved girls and young women, HealthRight International and its local partners in Russia and Ukraine have developed innovative service models. This paper presents each of these models and discusses their effectiveness and implementation challenges specific to local contexts in Russia and Ukraine.

HIV seroprevalence among orphaned and homeless youth: no place like home.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the combined influences of orphaned status and homelessness on HIV seroprevalence and risk among street-involved Ukrainian youth in 2008. DESIGN: Systematic, multicity, community-based, cross-sectional assessment. METHODS: Time-location sampling was used to identify eligible youth aged 15-24 after city-wide mapping of 91 sites where street-involved youth gathered in Odessa, Kiev, and Donetsk. Universal sampling identified 961 youth in 74 randomly selected sites; 97% consented. Youth reporting one or both parents dead were classified as orphaned; those without a stable residence or sleeping outside their residence at least two nights per week were classified as homeless. Trained staff provided HIV counseling and rapid testing via mobile vans. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were calculated using logistic regression, accounting for intracluster homogeneity. RESULTS: We found 32% (300 of 929) were both orphaned and homeless; 48% either (but not both) homeless [37% (343 of 929)] or orphaned [11% (104 of 929)]; and [20% (182 of 929)] neither orphaned nor homeless. HIV seroprevalences were 7% for neither orphaned/homeless; 16 and 17%, respectively, for either orphaned/homeless; 28% for both orphaned/homeless (P for trend <0.0001). AORs for HIV infection were 1 for neither; 2.3 and 2.4 for either homeless [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7-2.9] or orphaned (CI 1.8-3.3); 3.3 for both orphaned/homeless (CI 2.3-4.4). Ever-use of injection drugs increased from 15 to 32 to 48% for those who neither, either, or both orphaned and homeless, respectively (P for trend <0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: One of four youths who were both homeless and orphaned was HIV-infected; these youths were significantly more likely to be HIV infected and to report injection drug use than those with adequate housing and living parents.

Multi-city assessment of lifetime pregnancy involvement among street youth, Ukraine.

Although street youth are at increased risk of lifetime pregnancy involvement (LPI), or ever becoming or getting someone pregnant, no reports to date describe the epidemiology of LPI among systematically sampled street youth from multiple cities outside of North America. The purpose of our assessment was to describe the prevalence of and risk factors associated with LPI among street youth from three Ukrainian cities. We used modified time-location sampling to conduct a cross-sectional assessment in Odesa, Kyiv, and Donetsk that included citywide mapping of 91 public venue locations frequented by street youth, random selection of 74 sites, and interviewing all eligible and consenting street youth aged 15-24 years found at sampled sites (n = 929). Characteristics of youth and prevalence of LPI overall and by demographic, social, sexual, and substance use risk factors, were estimated separately for males and females. Adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were calculated with multivariable logistic regression and effect modification by gender was examined. Most (96.6%) eligible youth consented to participate. LPI was reported for 41.7% of females (93/223) and 23.5% of males (166/706). For females, LPI was significantly elevated and highest (>70%) among those initiating sexual activity at ≤12 years and for those reporting lifetime anal sex and exchanging sex for goods. For males, LPI was significantly elevated and highest (>40%) among those who reported lifetime anal sex and history of a sexually transmitted infection. Overall, risk factors associated with LPI were similar for females and males. Among the total sample (females and males combined), significant independent risk factors with AORs ≥2.5 included female gender, being aged 20-24 years, having five to six total adverse childhood experiences, initiating sex at age ≤12 or 13-14 years, lifetime anal sex, most recent sex act unprotected, and lifetime exchange of sex for goods. Among street youth with LPI (n = 259), the most recent LPI event was reported to be unintended by 63.3% and to have ended in abortion by 43.2%. In conclusion, our assessment documented high rates of LPI among Ukrainian street youth who, given the potential for negative outcomes and the challenges of raising a child on the streets, are in need of community-based pregnancy prevention programs and services. Promising preventive strategies are discussed, which are likely applicable to other urban populations of street-based youth as well.

HIV seroprevalence in street youth, St. Petersburg, Russia.

BACKGROUND: Reliable data on HIV infection among Russian street youth are unavailable. The purpose of this study was to assess HIV seroprevalence among street youth in St Petersburg and to describe social, sexual, and behavioral characteristics associated with HIV infection. METHODS: A cross-sectional assessment conducted during January-May 2006 included city-wide mapping of 41 street youth locations, random selection of 22 sites, rapid HIV testing for all consenting 15-19-year-old male and female street youth at these sites, and an interviewer-administered survey. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) were calculated using logistic regression, accounting for intracluster homogeneity. RESULTS: Of 313 participants, 117 (37.4%, 95% confidence interval 26.1-50.2%) were HIV infected. Subgroups with the highest seroprevalences included double orphans (64.3%), those with no place to live (68.1%), those previously diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection (STI; 70.5%), those currently sharing needles (86.4%), and those currently using inhalants (60.5%) or injection drugs (78.6%), including Stadol (82.3%) or heroin (78.1%). Characteristics independently associated with HIV infection included injecting drugs (AOR 23.0), sharing needles (AOR 13.3), being a double or single orphan (AOR 3.3 and 1.8), having no place to live (AOR 2.4), and being diagnosed with a STI (AOR 2.1). Most HIV-infected street youth were sexually active (96.6%), had multiple partners (65.0%), and used condoms inconsistently (80.3%). DISCUSSION: Street youth aged 15-19 years in St Petersburg, Russia, have an extraordinarily high HIV seroprevalence. In street youth who are injection drug users, HIV seroprevalence is the highest ever reported for eastern Europe and is among the highest in the world.