γδ T cells compose a developmentally regulated intrauterine population and protect against vaginal candidiasis.

This most comprehensive analysis to date of γδ T cells in the murine uterus reveals them to compose a unique local T-cell compartment. Consistent with earlier reports, most cells expressed a canonical Vγ6Vδ1 TCR, and produced interleukin (IL)-17A upon stimulation. Nonetheless, contrasting with earlier reports, uterine γδ T cells were not obviously intraepithelial, being more akin to sub-epithelial Vγ6Vδ1+ T cells at several other anatomical sites. By contrast to other tissues however, the uterine compartment also included non-Vγ6+, IFN-γ-producing cells; was strikingly enriched in young mice; expressed genes hitherto associated with the uterus, including the progesterone receptor; and did not require microbes for development and/or maintenance. This notwithstanding, γδ T-cell deficiency severely impaired resistance to reproductive tract infection by Candida albicans, associated with decreased responses of IL-17-dependent neutrophils. These findings emphasise tissue-specific complexities of different mucosal γδ cell compartments, and their evident importance in lymphoid stress-surveillance against barrier infection.

CD30L/CD30 is critical for maintenance of IL-17A-producing γδ T cells bearing Vγ6 in mucosa-associated tissues in mice.

CD30 ligand (CD30L, CD153), a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily, and its receptor CD30 are important for differentiation and activation of CD4(+) T helper type 17 (Th17) cells. In this report, we demonstrate that the interleukin 17A (IL-17A)-producing γδ T cells normally developed in the fetal thymus, whereas Vγ1(-)Vγ4(-) γδ T cells expressed Vγ6/Vδ1 gene transcript selectively decreased in mucosa-associated tissues in naive CD30KO or CD30LKO mice. Moreover, CD30 and CD30L were expressed preferentially by Vγ1(-)Vγ4(-) γδ T cells in naive mice. The bacteria clearance was attenuated by the impaired response of the IL-17A-producing γδ T cells and decreased infiltration of neutrophils in CD30KO or CD30LKO mice. In vivo administration of agonistic anti-CD30 monoclonal antibody restored the ability of protection against Listeria monocytogenes by enhancing Vγ1(-)Vγ4(-) γδ T cells producing IL-17A not only in wild-type but also CD30LKO mice. Taken together, it appears that CD30L/CD30 signaling plays an important role in the maintenance and activation of IL-17A-producing γδ T cells presumably bearing Vγ6 in the mucosa-associated tissues of mice.

Semi-allogeneic dendritic cells injected via the intratumoural injection route show efficient antitumour effects in cooperation with host-derived professional antigen-presenting cells.

Dendritic cells (DC)-based immunotherapy is a potent anticancer modality. In DC-based immunotherapy, allogeneic DC may be an alternative source, but the usefulness of allogeneic DC in DC-based immunotherapy is still controversial. When used for immunotherapy, three factors may affect the efficiency of an allogeneic DC-driven antitumour response: (1) survival time, which is affected by T-cell alloresponses; (2) major histocompatibility complex incompatibility with the host cells in the context of antigen presentation; and (3) the role of host-derived professional antigen-presenting cells (pAPC). In addition, it is unclear which injection route is preferable when using allogeneic DC. In this study, we demonstrate that semi-allogeneic DC, which share half of the genes of the recipient, are more effective when used via the intratumoural (i.t.) injection route, rather than the subcutaneous (s.c.) injection route, for the induction of efficient antitumour effects and the generation of a significant tumour-specific CD8(+) T-cell response. The i.t. route has the advantage of not requiring ex vivo pulsation with tumour lysates or tumour antigens, because the i.t.-injected DC can engulf tumour antigens in situ. Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) models, which permit us to separately assess the three factors described previously, show that while all three factors are important for efficient antitumour effects, the control of the alloresponse to injected DC is the most crucial for host-derived pAPC to function well when DC are administered intratumourally. This information may be useful for DC-based cancer immunotherapy under circumstances that do not allow for the use of autologous DC.

Antibody-mediated T-cell reduction or increased levels of chimerism overcome resistance to cyclophosphamide-induced tolerance in NKT-deficient mice.

We reported that invariant NKT-cell knockout (iNKT KO) mice are resistant to the induction of intrathymic chimerism and clonal deletion in the cyclophosphamide (CP)-induced tolerance system (CPS). However, another report shows that clonal deletion with chimerism may be intact in iNKT KO recipients in a bone marrow transplantation model. We also reported that pretreatment with anti-Thy1.2 mAb, which reduces the number of T cells and iNKT cells, promotes allograft tolerance across H-2 barriers in the CPS. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of T-cell depletion in the CPS, and the relationship between the role played by iNKT cells in central tolerance and mixed chimerism. BALB/c (H-2(d)) wild-type, or iNKT KO (Jalpha18(-/-)) mice were pretreated with 20-100 microg of anti-Thy1.2 mAb and given 10(8) donor DBA/2 (H-2(d)) spleen cells on Day 0, and 200 mg/kg CP on Day 2. Pretreatment with T-cell depletion resulted in higher levels of mixed chimerism, increased intrathymic clonal deletion of donor-reactive cells, and the induction of skin graft tolerance in iNKT KO recipients in CPS. This suggests that the high levels of mixed chimerism overcame the resistance to CP-induced tolerance in iNKT KO mice. Consistently, the enhancement of mixed chimerism by injection of tolerant donor spleen cells (SC) rendered iNKT KO recipients susceptible to CP-induced tolerance. These results suggest that iNKT-cell-mediated immunoregulation of central tolerance is evident at low levels of peripheral mixed chimerism in the CPS.

Effects of lipopolysaccharide on the induction of mixed chimerism in cyclophosphamide-induced tolerance.

Cyclophosphamide (CP)-induced tolerance is a mixed chimerism-based tolerance and is one of the strategies used to induce transplant tolerance. Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists are reportedly able to abrogate the induction of tolerance by activating alloreactive T cells, or by inhibiting Treg cells. However, little is known about the effect of the immune response mediated by TLR on mixed chimerism-based tolerance protocols. In this study, we evaluated the influence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is best known as an TLR4 agonist, on CP-induced tolerance. BALB/c (H-2(d)) mice received a conditioning regimen consisting of 10(8) donor DBA/2 (H-2(d)) spleen cells (SC) on day 0 and 200 mg/kg CP on day 2. A single dose of 20 microg LPS was injected on day -2, 0, 7, or 35. Our results showed that LPS infusion at any time point resulted in chronic rejection of donor skin grafts and the abrogation of mixed chimerism in 33-60% of recipients. We found a correlation between skin graft acceptance and higher levels of mixed chimerism. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that donor-reactive T cells were permanently eliminated, regardless of LPS infusion. In conclusion, LPS-infusion had little influence on the immune response of donor-reactive T cells, but had a significant effect on the induction and maintenance of mixed chimerism in CP-induced tolerance.

Th1 but not Th17 cells predominate in the joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

OBJECTIVES: Recent animal studies have revealed critical roles of interleukin (IL)17, which is produced by a newly identified subset of helper T cells, Th17 cells, in the development of autoimmune diseases including arthritis. However, in human rheumatoid arthritis (RA), detailed characteristics and the prevalence of Th17 cells are unclear. METHODS: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were obtained from 123 patients with RA and 28 healthy controls. Mononuclear cells were also prepared from synovial membrane or synovial fluid of 12 patients with RA. IL17 (IL17A) positive T cells were identified by a flow cytometer after ex vivo stimulation with phorbol myristate acetate and ionomycin. Disease activity was assessed with the 28-joint Disease Activity Score (DAS28). RESULTS: IL17 positive cells were detected in CD45RO+ CD4 T cells. Most IL17 positive T cells produced neither interferon (IFN)gamma nor IL4, but tumour necrosis factor (TNF)alpha similar to murine Th17 cells. The frequency of Th17 cells was neither increased in RA nor correlated with DAS28. Unexpectedly, the frequency of Th17 cells was significantly decreased in the joints compared with PBMC of the same patients with RA, whereas Th1 cells were more abundant in the joints than in PBMC. CONCLUSIONS: We could not obtain evidence that positively supports predominance of Th17 cells in RA. Further careful investigation is necessary before clinical application of IL17-targeting therapy.

Lipopolysaccharide inhalation exacerbates allergic airway inflammation by activating mast cells and promoting Th2 responses.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial infection occasionally exacerbates asthma, although the cellular and molecular mechanisms have not been well defined. An involvement of mast cells has been suggested, as lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-induced cytokine production from mast cells in vitro. OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to examine the effects of LPS inhalation on mast cell functions and allergen-specific immune responses in a murine model of asthma. METHODS: Female BALB/c mice or mast cell-deficient W/W(v) mice were immunized intraperitoneally with ovalbumin (OVA). Mice were challenged with aerosolized OVA or OVA with LPS daily from day 21 to day 24. Twenty-four hours after the last challenge, airway inflammation and OVA-specific immune responses were examined. Allergen-specific T cell responses were further analysed by adoptively transferring OVA-specific CD4(+) T cells. Expression of chemokines in the lung was also examined. RESULTS: LPS inhalation with OVA resulted in exacerbated airway infiltration, which was not evident in mast cell-deficient mice. IL-5 production by mast cells in the lung was enhanced by LPS inhalation. OVA-specific IgE production as well as proliferation, cytokine production and local infiltration of OVA specific T-helper lymphocytes type 2 (Th2) were also enhanced. Up-regulated expression of Th2- and/or eosinophil-attracting chemokines was observed in the lung of mice inhalated with LPS. CONCLUSIONS: LPS inhalation exacerbates airway inflammation, which is accompanied by mast cell activation and enhanced Th2 responses. These observations provide clues towards understanding the mechanisms of bacterial infection-induced exacerbation of the clinical features of asthma.

Levan (beta-2, 6-fructan), a major fraction of fermented soybean mucilage, displays immunostimulating properties via Toll-like receptor 4 signalling: induction of interleukin-12 production and suppression of T-helper type 2 response and immunoglobulin E production.

BACKGROUND: Products from the fermentation process of soybeans by Bacillus subtilis (natto) have been shown to possess anti-tumour and immunomodulatory activities. However, the formulations previously examined were not chemically pure, and this is a major limitation for elucidation of the molecular mechanisms for their activities. OBJECTIVE: In order to determine which components in soybean mucilage exert immunostimulatory activities, we examined the activities of their purified forms in vitro and in vivo in mice. METHODS: B. subtilis (natto) and fractions including levan and poly-gamma-glutamic acid (gamma-PGA) from fermented soybean mucilage were prepared. Levels of cytokine production by mouse macrophage cells after treatment with the fractions were measured by means of ELISA. In vivo effect of levan delivered intragastrically on ovalbumin (OVA)-specific T-helper type 2 (Th2) response with IgE production was examined in BALB/c mice that had been immunized intraperitoneally with OVA. Results Levan but neither gamma-PGA nor killed B. subtilis (natto) was found to exert strong activity to induce production of IL-12 p40 and TNF-alpha by macrophage cell lines in vitro. RESULTS: of experiments using Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4-deficient mice and TLR4-transfected human cell line indicated that TLR4 is involved in pattern recognition of levan. Oral administration of levan in vivo significantly reduced the serum levels of OVA-specific IgE and Th2 response to OVA in mice immunized with OVA. CONCLUSION: Levan is an immunostimulatory moiety in products from the fermentation process of B. subtilis (natto) and may be useful for prevention of allergic disorders with IgE production.

Novel roles of osteopontin and CXC chemokine ligand 7 in the defence against mycobacterial infection.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-induced human monocyte-derived macrophage (GM-Mphi) or macrophage CSF (M-CSF)-induced human monocyte-derived Mphi (M-Mphi) are distinct in terms of the resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. To elucidate the role of molecules involved in the functional differences between these Mphis, we investigated the gene expression profiles using microarray. After culture of CD14+ monocytes with CSFs, Mphis were cultured with or without bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) (GM-Mphi-BCG and M-Mphi-BCG). The gene expression profiles from these cells were compared. Chemokines highly expressed in M-Mphis were selected and evaluated for anti-mycobacterial activity and superoxide production. FN1 and FCGR2B were the most up-regulated genes in GM-Mphi and M-Mphi, respectively. After stimulation with BCG, three chemokine genes (Osteopontin (SPP1), CXC chemokine ligand 7 (CXCL7) and CC chemokine ligand 11 (CCL11)) were highly expressed in M-Mphi-BCG when compared to those in GM-Mphi-BCG. A significantly increased resistance to M. tuberculosis H37Ra was observed after the stimulation of GM-Mphi with SPP1 or CXCL7. Superoxide production levels of SPP1- or CXCL7-stimulated GM-Mphis were higher than those of GM-Mphis without stimulation. These results indicate that both SPP1 and CXCL7 might have a role in the resistance against mycobacteria, at least in part, through augmenting reactive oxygen intermediate production in Mphis.

Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 are differentially involved in Fas dependent apoptosis in Peyer's patch and the liver at an early stage after bile duct ligation in mice.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Surgical management of extrahepatic cholestasis is frequently complicated by bacterial translocation and severe liver injury. The aim of this study was to clarify the involvement of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the pathogenesis of bacterial translocation and liver injury in obstructive cholestasis. METHODS: TLR2 deficient (TLR2(-/-)), MyD88(-/-), Jalpha281(-/-), gld/gld, and lpr/lpr mice, all of which have a C57BL/6 background, and C3H/HeN and TLR4 mutated C3H/HeJ mice were subjected to bile duct ligation (BDL). Faecal IgA and serum alanine aminotransferase levels were determined after BDL. Apoptosis was examined by histological and flow cytometric analyses of cells from Peyer's patches and the liver. RESULTS: The size and number of B cells in Peyer's patches markedly decreased on day 3 after BDL. Increased apoptosis in Peyer's patch B cells was evident on day 1 after BDL in control mice but not in lpr/lpr, MyD88(-/-), or C3H/HeJ mice. On the other hand, TLR2 and Fas ligand expression on intrahepatic NK1.1(+) T cells increased on day 1 after BDL in C57BL/6 mice. Liver injury and apoptosis were evident on day 1 after BDL in control and C3H/HeJ mice but were significantly reduced in TLR2(-/-), Jalpha281(-/-), gld/gld, and lpr/lpr mice. CONCLUSIONS: TLR4 and TLR2 may play important roles in Fas dependent apoptosis in Peyer's patch B cells and hepatocytes, respectively, at an early stage after BDL in mice.

Role of interleukin 15 in colitis induced by dextran sulphate sodium in mice.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Interleukin (IL)-15 is a member of the IL-2 family, stimulating dendritic cells, natural killer (NK) cells, NK T cells and memory CD8+ T cells. IL-15 levels were elevated in the intestinal mucosa of inflammatory bowel diseases. Here we investigated the involvement of IL-15 in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) induced colitis. METHODS: IL-15 knockout (KO) mice and control C57BL/6 mice were used to induce colitis with DSS in their drinking water. Survival rate, clinical activity of diseases, extent of tissue damage, leucocyte population, and cytokine production of lamina propria (LP) cells of the large intestines were assessed. RESULTS: IL-15 KO mice exhibited resistance to DSS induced acute colitis, as reflected by lower lethality, weight loss, clinical scores, and histological scores compared with those in control mice (p<0.05). The proportions of CD44(high) CD8+ T cells and NK cells in LP cells and levels of interferon (IFN)-gamma, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, and IL-12p40 in culture supernatants of LP cells were reduced in IL-15 KO mice (p<0.05). In vivo depletion of CD8+ T cells and NK cells decreased levels of IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and IL-12p40 in culture supernatants of LP cells in C57BL/6 mice (p<0.01). In chronic colitis, weight loss and clinical scores were improved and levels of IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and IL-12p40 in culture supernatants of LP cells were also reduced in IL-15 KO mice (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: IL-15 plays an important role in the pathogenesis of both acute and chronic colitis induced by DSS in mice.

Cot/Tpl2 is essential for RANKL induction by lipid A in osteoblasts.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a pathogenic factor that increases bone resorption in periodontal diseases. LPS treatment of osteoblasts was shown to induce the receptor activator of NF-kappa B ligand (RANKL), an essential secretory or membrane-bound factor for osteoclast function, in a manner dependent on extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. However, the mechanisms regulating this process remained unknown. Here, we show that RANKL mRNA induction and ERK activation, when treated with synthetic lipid A (an active center of LPS), were markedly reduced in mouse osteoblasts lacking Cot/Tpl2, which was recently recognized as an essential kinase for the induction of TNF-alpha by LPS in macrophages. In contrast, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 kinase, Raf-1, and NF-kappa B were normally activated in cot/tpl2-/- osteoblasts. These findings indicate that Cot/Tpl2 is essential for LPS-induced ERK activation and RANKL induction in osteoblasts.

Syndecan-4 deficiency leads to high mortality of lipopolysaccharide-injected mice.

Syndecan-4 is a transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan belonging to the syndecan family. Following intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), syndecan-4-deficient mice exhibited high mortality compared with wild-type controls. Severe endotoxin shock was observed in the deficient mice: systolic blood pressure and left ventricular fractional shortening were lower in the deficient mice than in the wild-type controls 9 h after LPS injection. Although histological examinations revealed no apparent differences between two groups, the plasma level of interleukin (IL)-1beta was higher in the deficient mice than in the wild-type controls 9 h after LPS injection. Consistent with the regulatory roles of syndecan-4, its expression in monocytes and endothelial cells of microvasculature increased in the wild-type mice after LPS administration. Although IL-1beta was produced to the same extent by macrophages from syndecan-4-deficient and wild-type mice after LPS stimulation, inhibition of its production by transforming growth factor-beta1 was impaired in the syndecan-4-deficient macrophages. These results indicate that syndecan-4 could be involved in prevention of endotoxin shock, at least partly through the inhibitory action of transforming growth factor-beta1 on IL-1beta production.

A novel mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase is an important negative regulator of lipopolysaccharide-mediated c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation in mouse macrophage cell lines.

We have isolated a cDNA homologous to known dual-specificity phosphatases from a mouse macrophage cDNA library and termed it MKP-M (for mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase isolated from macrophages). Three other presumed splice variant isoforms have also been identified for MKP-M. The longest and most abundant mRNA contains an open reading frame corresponding to 677 amino acids and produces an 80-kDa protein. The deduced amino acid sequence of MKP-M is most similar to those of hVH-5 (or mouse M3/6) and VHP1, a Caenorhabditis elegans tyrosine phosphatase. It includes an N-terminal rhodanase homology domain, the extended active-site sequence motif (V/L)X(V/I)HCXAG(I/V)SRSXT(I/V)XXAY(L/I)M (where X is any amino acid), and a C-terminal PEST sequence. Northern blot analysis revealed a dominant MKP-M mRNA species of approximately 5.5 kb detected ubiquitously among all tissues examined. MKP-M was constitutively expressed in mouse macrophage cell lines, and its expression levels were rapidly increased by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation but not by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), gamma interferon, interleukin-2 (IL-2), or IL-15 stimulation. Immunocytochemical analysis showed MKP-M to be present within cytosol. When expressed in COS7 cells, MKP-M blocks activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases with the selectivity c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) >> p38 = extracellular signal-regulated kinase. Furthermore, expression of a catalytically inactive form of MKP-M in a mouse macrophage cell line increased the intensity and duration of JNK activation and TNF-alpha secretion after LPS stimulation, suggesting that MKP-M is at least partially responsible for the desensitization of LPS-mediated JNK activation and cytokine secretion in macrophages.

Overexpression of IL-15 in vivo enhances protection against Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin infection via augmentation of NK and T cytotoxic 1 responses.

To investigate the immunomodulating effects of IL-15 in vivo on mycobacterial infection, we used IL-15-transgenic (Tg) mice, which were recently constructed with cDNA-encoding secretable isoform of IL-15 precursor protein under the control of a MHC class I promoter. The IL-15-Tg mice exhibited resistance against infection with Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), as assessed by bacteria growth. IFN-gamma level in serum was significantly higher in IL-15-Tg mice than in non-Tg mice after BCG infection. NK cells were remarkably increased, and Ag-specific T cytotoxic 1 response mediated by CD8+ T cells producing IFN-gamma was significantly augmented in the IL-15-Tg mice following BCG infection. Neutralization of endogenous IFN-gamma by in vivo administration of anti-IFN-gamma mAb deteriorated the clearance of the bacteria. Depletion of of NK cells or CD8+ T cells by in vivo administration of anti-asialo-GM(1) Ab or anti-CD8 mAb hampered the exclusion of bacteria. Thus, overexpression of IL-15 in vivo enhanced protection against BCG infection via augmentation of NK and T cytotoxic 1 responses.

Dichotomous effect of a traditional Japanese medicine, bu-zhong-yi-qi-tang on allergic asthma in mice.

To determine the potentiality of prophylactic and/or therapeutic approaches using a traditional herbal medicine, Bu-zhong-yi-qi-tang (Japanese name: Hochu-ekki-to, HOT), for the control of allergic disease, we examined the effects of oral administration of HOT on a murine model of asthma allergic responses. When oral administration of HOT was begun at the induction phase immediately after OVA sensitization, eosinophilia and Th2-type cytokine production in the airway were reduced in OVA-sensitized mice following OVA inhalation. The serum levels of OVA-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)E and IgG1 were significantly decreased, whereas the level of OVA-specific IgG2a was increased. Interleukin (IL)-4 production by spleen T cells in response to OVA was significantly suppressed, while Interferon (IFN)-gamma production was increased in mice treated with HOT in the induction phase. On the other hand, HOT given in the eliciting phase induced a predominant Th2 response with increased IgE production in OVA-sensitized mice following OVA inhalation. These results suggest that the oral administration of HOT dichotomously modulates allergic inflammation in a murine model for asthma, thus offering a different approach for the treatment of allergic disorders.

Interleukin-15 prevents mouse mast cell apoptosis through STAT6-mediated Bcl-xL expression.

Interleukin (IL)-15 is a member of the cytokine family with T and natural killer (NK) cell growth-promoting activity. In mast cells, however, IL-15 uses a distinct receptor system different from that used in T and NK cells. We recently reported that IL-15 induces STAT6 activation and IL-4 production in a mouse mast cell line (MC/9) and bone marrow-derived mast cells. In the present study, we have demonstrated that IL-15 prevents MC/9 and bone marrow-derived mast cell apoptosis induced by factor withdrawal or anti-Fas antibody treatment. IL-15 increased mRNA and protein levels of an anti-apoptotic protein (Bcl-x(L)) in these cells, whereas bcl-2 mRNA remained unchanged. In addition, the transcriptional activity of the bcl-x(L) promoter was increased by IL-15 in MC/9 cells. In an electrophoretic mobility shift assay, IL-15 induced STAT6 binding to the STAT recognition site in the bcl-x(L) gene promoter. Furthermore, the expression of a dominant-negative form of STAT6 abrogated the effects of IL-15 on both bcl-x(L) mRNA up-regulation and prevention of apoptosis in mast cells. Altogether, our results suggest that IL-15 plays an important role in maintaining the number of mast cells through Bcl-x(L) expression mediated by STAT6.

NF-kappa B and STAT5 play important roles in the regulation of mouse Toll-like receptor 2 gene expression.

Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) is involved in the innate immunity by recognizing various bacterial components. We have previously reported that TLR2 gene expression is rapidly induced by LPS or inflammatory cytokines in macrophages, and by TCR engagement or IL-2/IL-15 stimulation in T cells. Here, to investigate the mechanisms governing TLR2 transcription, we cloned the 5' upstream region of the mouse TLR2 (mTLR2) gene and mapped its transcriptional start site. The 5' upstream region of the mTLR2 gene contains two NF-kappa B, two CCAAT/enhancer binding protein, one cAMP response element-binding protein, and one STAT consensus sequences. In mouse macrophage cell lines, deletion of both NF-kappa B sites caused the complete loss of mTLR2 promoter responsiveness to TNF-alpha. NF-kappa B sites were also important but not absolutely necessary for LPS-mediated mTLR2 promoter activation. In T cell lines, mTLR2 responsiveness to IL-15 was abrogated by the 3' NF-kappa B mutation, whereas 5' NF-kappa B showed no functional significance. The STAT binding site also seemed to contribute, as the deletion of this sequence significantly reduced the IL-15-mediated mTLR2 promoter activation. EMSAs confirmed nuclear protein binding to both NF-kappa B sites in macrophages following LPS and TNF-alpha stimulation and to the 3' NF-kappa B site in T cells after IL-15 treatment. Thus, NF-kappa B activation is important but differently involved in the regulation of mTLR2 gene expression in macrophages and T cells following LPS or cytokine stimulation.

Memory phenotype CD8(+) T cells in IL-15 transgenic mice are involved in early protection against a primary infection with Listeria monocytogenes.

We recently constructed IL-15 transgenic (Tg) mice using cDNA encoding a secretable isoform of the IL-15 precursor protein under the control of an MHC class I promoter. The IL-15 Tg mice exhibited resistance against a primary infection with Listeria monocytogenes. The numbers of memory CD8(+) T cells were markedly increased in the IL-15 Tg mice following Listeria infection accompanied by sustained IL-15 production. The increased CD44(+)CD8(+) T cells in the infected IL-15 Tg mice were not specialized to recognize Listeria-specific antigen but produced a large amount of IFN-gamma in response to bystander stimulation exogenous IL-15 in combination with IL-12. Furthermore, Listeria-specific Th1 response by CD4(+) T cells was significantly augmented in the IL-15 Tg mice compared with control mice following Listeria infection. In vivo depletion of the CD8(+) T cells by anti-CD8 monoclonal antibody and adoptive transfer of the T cells from naive IL-15 Tg mice indicated that the CD8(+) T cells functioned not only to eliminate bacteria at the early stage of infection but also to promote Th1 response to L. monocytogenes. Overexpression of IL-15 shed light on a novel role of memory CD8(+) T cells in early protection and promotion of Th1 response against a primary infection with L. monocytogenes.

Mice lacking interleukin-2 (IL-2)/IL-15 receptor beta chain are susceptible to infection with avirulent Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar choleraesuis but mice lacking IL-2 are resistant.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2)/IL-15 receptor beta (IL-15R beta)(-/-) mice were susceptible to infection with avirulent Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Choleraesuis, whereas IL-2(-/-) mice were resistant. A natural killer cell response was not evident for both types of deficient mice. A Th1 response was detected in IL-2(-/-) but not in IL-2/IL-15R beta(-/-) mice infected with Salmonella, suggesting that IL-2/IL-15R beta signaling is important for the generation of protective Th1 cells.