Energy-saving targets and carbon neutrality: A perspective on carbon emissions and carbon substitution in 288 Chinese cities.

Environmental protection is a shared task among nations. In pursuit of its commitment to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060, China has implemented more robust energy-saving targets. This study utilizes panel data from 288 Chinese cities spanning from 2006 to 2020 to examine the policy effects of energy-saving targets on carbon neutrality. The findings reveal that (1) energy-saving targets positively impact carbon substitution, resulting in reduced carbon emissions and facilitating the progress towards carbon neutrality through three primary channels: energy governance, energy production, and energy consumption. (2) The influence of energy-saving targets on carbon neutrality exhibits a significant spatial spillover effect, driven primarily by the reduction in carbon emissions, although the spatial spillover effect of carbon substitution is relatively limited. The collaboration between the government and enterprises plays a crucial role in achieving carbon neutrality, while the engagement of the general public is yet to be fully realized. (3) However, the inadequacy of enhancing carbon neutrality through energy-saving targets lies in the compulsory emissions reduction behavior at the expense of sacrificing some economic benefits in cities that overachieve energy-saving targets. This undermines the coordinated development of ecology and economy. Therefore, it is recommended to establish a policy implementation monitoring system to ensure the scientific basis of policy objectives, enhance the level of green technology innovation, accelerate the digital transformation of enterprises, and establish a synergistic mechanism that involves multiple stakeholders.

Development of human health criteria in China for benzo[a]pyrene: A comparison of deterministic and probabilistic approaches.

Human health water quality criteria (HHWQC) for benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in Chinese rivers and lakes were established using both deterministic and probabilistic approaches. Results showed that the national bioaccumulation factor (BAF) values for BaP at trophic levels 2, 3, and 4 were 342 L/kg, 199 L/kg, and 196 L/kg, respectively. The probabilistic HHWQC for BaP was 0.00407 µg/L for both water and organisms consumption and 0.00488 µg/L for organisms consumption only, which provide a more adequate protection than the deterministic HHWQC. Approximately 32.1% of the studied waters in China exceeded the derived HHWQC, which is likely to have adverse health effects and need be considered more attention. The derived HHWQC for BaP is soly based on Chinese exposure-related activity patterns and field-measured BAFs in surface freshwaters in China, which is important to provide a scientific basis for establishing or revising water quality standards (WQS) and risk management of BaP in water.

[Heavy Metal Pollution Characteristics and Risk Assessment of Golden Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) Habitat in Shennongjia Mountains].

The golden snub-nosed monkey is one of the most endangered animal species endemic to China. In order to explore the characteristics and health risks of golden snub-nosed monkeys exposed to heavy metals, we collected the plant food sources, soil, and water samples from the golden snub-nosed monkey habitat in the Shennongjia Mountains; examined the contents of seven heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, and As); and adopted the comprehensive pollution index, potential ecological risk index, and Nemerow index to evaluate pollutants in the water, soil, and food plants. At the same time, the Target Hazard Quotient method was used to assess heavy metals in the food plants. The results showed that the heavy metal concentration of the habitat water was 0.004-1.220 µg·L-1. The water comprehensive pollution index showed that the habitat water was safe. In addition, the ω(Cd)(0.162-0.822 mg·kg-1) in the soil was 2.71 times the background value of the soil in Hubei province, indicating a moderate risk of ecological harm. The over-standard rates of Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni in food plants were 29%, 29%, 18%, and 35%, respectively; the pollution indexes of lichen and bark were 6.038 and 7.709, which were at a heavy pollution level; and the pollution indexes of Abies fragesii and Vicia cracca were 2.716 and 2.034, which indicated a moderately polluted level. The rest of the plants were at a safe level. Our health risk analysis showed that the risk of lichen and bark were higher than that of leaves, followed by fruits. Among the seven metals, As most threatened the health of the golden snub-nosed monkeys (THQ>1). In general, heavy metals had polluted the habitats of the golden snub-nosed monkeys in the Shennongjia Mountains, and we are certain that the heavy metal pollution was associated with human activities. Thus, human activities in the Shennongjia Mountains should be reasonably restricted in the future. Our results can provide scientific support for the population conservation of golden snub-nosed monkeys in China and provide research samples in the health risk valuation of heavy metals in endangered animals through food plants.

Enantioselective toxicity, degradation and transformation of the chiral insecticide fipronil in two algae culture.

The occurrence of pesticides and their metabolites in the environment can alter the ecological relationships between aquatic food chains. Fipronil is a broad-spectrum insecticide which release in the environment may harm the non-target organisms. However, the toxicity and biotransformation of its two enantiomers are far from fully understood. The present study aimed to investigate the aquatic toxicity and environmental behavior of fipronil at enantiomeric level using two freshwater algae, Scenedesmus quaclricauda (S. quaclricauda), and Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) through an integrative approach the transformation process of the individual enantiomer isolated and in racemic form. The 72 h-EC50 values of rac-, R-, S-fipronil varied from 3.27 to 7.24 mg L-1 with R-fipronil posing a more significant effect on algal growth inhibition. Chlorophyll a was more susceptible to fipronil exposure than chlorophyll b and carotenoids. Enantioselective alterations on physiological and biochemical parameters (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, and the activities of antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD)) were also observed. The half-lives (T1/2) of R-fipronil and S-fipronil in algae culture were 3.4-3.5 d and 4.0-4.9 d, respectively. By the end of the 17-d exposure, the enantiomer fractions (EFs) increased to 0.59, indicating a preferential depuration of R-fipronil. The metabolites monitoring showed the fipronil sulfide was the main metabolite followed by fipronil sulfone. The results revealed that the enantiomers of fipronil pose enantiospecific behaviors induced by these two algae, with the R-enantiomer more toxic to algal growth and favorable in degradation. These analyses are beneficial for understanding the ecological effect of chiral pesticide in aquatic environment, and the enantiomeric differences of the toxicity, degradation and the formation of toxic metabolites could be helpful for the eco-environmental risk evaluation.

Sorption of tetrabromobisphenol A onto microplastics: Behavior, mechanisms, and the effects of sorbent and environmental factors.

Microplastics (MPs) and halogenated organic pollutants coexist in ambient water and MPs tend to sorb organic pollutants from surrounding environments. Herein, a study on the sorption behavior of tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) onto four different MPs, namely, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was carried out. Effects of MPs properties and environmental factors, including the type, surface charge and pore volume as well as the ionic strength (Ca2+) and humic acid (HA) on the sorption of TBBPA were discussed. Results showed that the sorption of TBBPA onto the MPs could reached an equilibrium within 24 h, and the sorption capacities decreased in the following order -PVC (101.85 mg kg-1) >PS (78.95 mg kg-1) >PP (58.57 mg kg-1) >PE (49.43 mg kg-1). Adsorption kinetics data fitted by intraparticle diffusion model revealed both surface sorption and intraparticle diffusion contributed, in the interfacial diffusion stage approximately 11-29% of TBBPA slowly diffused onto the surface of the MPs, and finally, in the intraparticle diffusion stage. The increase of Ca2+ concentration could promote the sorption of TBBPA by PE, PP, and PS, but no significant alteration for PVC. For all the four MPs, HA was found to exert a negative effect on TBBPA sorption. The adsorption was mainly driven by hydrophobic partition and electrostatic interactions.

Brominated flame retardants and heavy metals in common aquatic products from the pearl river delta, south china: Bioaccessibility assessment and human health implications.

Aquatic products are an important source of environmental pollutants to humans. This study was conducted to assess the bioaccessibility of selected brominated flame retardants and heavy metals in common aquatic products from the Pearl River Delta, South China, as well as associated human health risks. Based on a questionnaire survey, ten of the most consumed aquatic products were collected from local markets. The bioaccessibility of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDDs), and heavy metals was assessed using an in vitro gastrointestinal model. Bioaccessibility of heavy metals (33.0-84.0%) and HBCDDs (38.5-68.4%) was significantly higher than that of PBDEs (13.4-65.4%). Total non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks from heavy metal consumption were much higher than the threshold values due to excessive abundances of arsenic in shellfish (HQ = 2.45, CR = 1.1 ×10-3). Furthermore, middle-aged populations and females were subjected to greater health risks due to different intakes of aquatic products among age and gender groups. Significant difference in bioaccessibility among analytes indicated that bioaccessibility of pollutants is non-negligible in health risk assessment. This is the first study systematically investigating health risks of aquatic products consumption and concludes that shellfish is a great cause for concern for the PRD residents.

Polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) toxicity induced oxidative stress and intestinal injury in nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

To understand the toxicity and mechanism of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) exposure, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) was exposed to various concentrations (0, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 µg/L) of PS-MPs, and the levels physiological, biochemical, and molecular parameters were measured as endpoints. Subacute exposure to 1-100 µg/L of PS-MPs resulted in adverse physiological effects in C. elegans, and PS-MPs were ingested and accumulated in the intestine of C. elegans. Exposure to 100 µg/L of PS-MPs significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipofuscin accumulation, and the expression oxidative stress-related genes, which suggests that PS-MPs exposure induced oxidative stress by ROS. In addition, exposure to 100 µg/L of PS-MPs caused a hyperpermeable state of the intestinal barrier and altered the expression of genes related to intestinal development, which indicates intestinal damage in C. elegans. According to Pearson correlation analyses, oxidative stress and intestinal damage were significantly correlated with adverse effects of PS-MPs in C. elegans. Therefore, it was speculated that the toxicity induced by PS-MPs resulted from the combination of oxidative stress and intestinal injury.

Enhanced adsorption of tetrabromobisphenol a (TBBPA) on cosmetic-derived plastic microbeads and combined effects on zebrafish.

Microplastics (MPs) pollution and its potential environmental risks have drawn increasing concerns in recent years. Among which, microbeads in personal care and cosmetic products has becoming an emerging issue for their abundance as well as the knowledge gaps in their precise environmental behaviors in freshwater. The present study investigated the sorption process of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), the most widely applied and frequently encountered flame retardant in aquatic environments, on two sources of polyethylene (PE) particles (pristine PE particles and microbeads isolated from personal care and cosmetic products). Significantly enhanced adsorption capacity of microbeads was observed with up to 5-folds higher than the pristine PE particles. The sorption efficiency was also governed by solution pH, especially for the cosmetic-derived microbeads, indicating the strong adsorption of TBBPA on PE was dominated by both hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. Additionally, combined effects on redox status of zebrafish were evaluated with two environmental relevant concentrations of PE particles (0.5 and 5 mg L-1) using integrated biomarker response (IBR) index through a 14-d exposure. Co-exposure induced significant antioxidative stress than either PE or TBBPA alone when exposed to 0.5 mg L-1 of MPs. After 7-d depuration, the IBR value for combination treatments [TBBPA + PE (L)] was 3-fold compared with that in MP-free groups, indicating the coexistence might exert a prolonged adverse effects on aquatic organisms. These results highlight the probability of risk from microbead pollution in freshwater, where toxic compounds can be adsorbed on microbeads in a considerable amount resulting in potential adverse effects towards aquatic organisms.

Tetrabromobisphenol A: Disposition, kinetics and toxicity in animals and humans.

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is a nonregulated brominated flame retardant with a high production volume, and it is applied in a wide variety of consumer products. TBBPA is ubiquitous in abiotic matrices, wildlife and humans around the world. This paper critically reviews the published scientific data concerning the disposition, metabolism or kinetics and toxicity of TBBPA in animals and humans. TBBPA is rapidly absorbed and widely distributed among tissues, and is excreted primarily in the feces. In rats, TBBPA and its metabolites have limited systemic bioavailability. TBBPA has been detected in human milk in the general population. It is available to both the developing fetus and the nursing pups following maternal exposure. It has been suggested that TBBPA causes acute toxicity, endocrine disruptor activity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity in animals. Cell-based assays have shown that TBBPA can induce reactive oxygen species in a concentration-dependent manner, and it promotes the production of inflammatory factors such as TNF α, IL-6, and IL-8. Cells exposed to high levels of TBBPA exhibit seriously injured mitochondria and a dilated smooth endoplasmic reticulum. This review will enhance the understanding of the potential risks of TBBPA exposure to ecological and human health.

Bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in wild marine fish from the coastal waters of the northern South China Sea: Risk assessment for human health.

Little data are available on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in marine fish associated with oil and gas activities from the South China Sea (SCS). Twenty-one wild marine fish species from the northern South China Sea were collected for analysis of the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The total concentration of the PAHs (∑16PAHs) ranged from 199 to 606 ng·g-1 d.w., indicating moderate contamination. PAHs in fish species found in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) were significantly higher than those from the Yachen (YC) gas fields (p < 0.05). Planktivorous fish exhibited significantly higher concentrations of PAHs than carnivorous and omnivorous fish (p < 0.05). The PAHs were dominated by three ring compounds. Source identification analyses indicated that the PAH pollution originated from petroleum inputs. The cancer and non-cancer risk assessments concluded that the probable risk associated with the intake of PAHs via fish consumption is minimal. Long-term monitoring is necessary to determine the ecological impacts of PAHs associated with oil and gas activities.

Screening and prioritization of chemical hazards for deriving human health ambient water quality criteria in China.

A two-step screening and prioritization approach of the chemical hazard to derive water quality criteria for the protection of human health in China was developed. Seventy-five potential candidate chemicals were identified in Step 1, and then were screened and scored in Step 2, based on three characteristics: detection frequency, toxicity, and human exposure. Substances with a score above 900 were considered the proposed candidates. Using this approach, 18 chemicals were successfully identified, and ranked in the following order: zinc, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, trichloromethane, arsenic, cadmium, gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), copper, benzo[a]pyrene, lead, benzene, fluoranthene, mercury, beta-HCH, anthracene, p,p'-DDT, and alpha-HCH. Additional chemical contaminants, including thallium, antimony, chromium (VI), and nitrobenzene, suggested by the Ministry of Environmental Protection for consideration during the development of the water quality criteria, brought the final number of proposed candidates to 22. These candidates belong to different groups: nine metals, four polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), four pesticides, two phthalic acid esters, one halogenated hydrocarbon, and two monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. This list of pollutants will provide guidance when selecting the substances to be considered during the development of water quality criteria for the protection of human health in China.

Rapid and simultaneous analysis of tetrabromobisphenol A and hexabromocyclododecane in water by direct immersion solid phase microextraction: Uniform design to explore factors.

Direct immersion solid phase microextraction (DI-SPME) coupled to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is of significant research interest because of its low solvent consumption, simple design, and efficient, sensitive, fast performance. In this work, a combination of these two methods (DI-SPME-LC-MS) for the determination of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) in water was developed. Important factors, which included temperature, stirring rate, salt concentration, pH value and adsorption time, were evaluated in for the optimization of solid phase microextraction (SPME) method. The method was developed using spiked natural waters in a concentration range of 0.1-10 ng mL-1, and showed notable linearity with regression coefficients ranging between 0.992 and 0.999. The limits of detection varied from 0.01 to 0.04 ng mL-1 (at S/N = 3) and relative standard deviation (RSD < 11%) were obtained showing that the precision of the method was reliable. Recoveries were in relatively high levels for both analytes and ranged from 88% to 108%. Moreover, in comparison with the performance time of traditional sample pretreatment methods such as solid-phase extraction (SPE), accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), and liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), DI-SPME-LC-MS takes only approximately 35 min to perform. The optimized method was successfully applied for monitoring concentrations of TBBPA and HBCD in water.

A review of toxicity induced by persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are almost ubiquitous in synthetic and natural sources; however these contaminants adversely impact ecosystems and humans. Owing to their potential toxicity, concerns have been raised about the effects of POPs and EDCs on ecological and human health. Therefore, toxicity evaluation and mechanisms actions of these contaminants are of great interest. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), an excellent model animal for environmental toxicology research, has been used widely for toxicity studies of POPs or EDCs from the whole-animal level to the single-cell level. In this review, we have discussed the toxicity of specific POPs or EDCs after acute, chronic, and multigenerational exposure in C. elegans. We have also introduced a discussion of the toxicological mechanisms of these compounds in C. elegans, with respect to oxidative stress, cell apoptosis, and the insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway. Finally, we raised considered the perspectives and challenges of the toxicity assessments, multigenerational toxicity, and toxicological mechanisms.

Health implication of heavy metals exposure via multiple pathways for residents living near a former e-waste recycling area in China: A comparative study.

Herein, crop (vegetables and rice, n = 30), soil (n = 14), dust (n = 12), and PM10 (n = 25) samples were collected to assess the environmental quality of a former e-waste recycling area and evaluate the related health risks. In dust and PM10, the concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were lower than previously reported values, although the numbers for soil, vegetables, and rice remained high. The average accumulation factors of heavy metals in crops decreased in the order of Zn > Cd > Ni > Cu > Pb, and soil was identified as the largest contributor to crop pollution. Heavy metal ingestion largely occurred via rice consumption, which accounted for a significant fraction of the total average daily dose (ADD; 75.2-86.7% in children and 78.0-91.7% in adults), especially for Cd, Cu, Ni, and Zn. However, in the case of Pb, soil ingestion accounted for 48.9% of the ADD in adults, while in children, vegetable, rice, and dust ingestion accounted for 44.7%, 28.6%, and 23.7% of the ADD, respectively. The combined exposure hazard indices at the fifth, median, and 95th percentiles for all heavy metals were determined as 2.54, 9.40, and 40.1 for adults and as 3.75, 13.7, and 58.4 for children, respectively. In terms of health risk, crop consumption was identified as the major exposure pathway for both children and adults, featuring a contribution of 99.9%. In addition, the 95th percentile carcinogenic risks for Pb exceeded the acceptable level. Thus, this work shows that to reduce the health risk for local residents in the former e-waste area, more attention should be paid to soil repair.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in multi-phases from the drinking water source area of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) in South China: Distribution, source apportionment, and risk assessment.

Sixteen priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in the water dissolved phase (DP), suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sediment collected from the water source zone of the Pearl River Delta region. The sum of 16 PAH concentrations ranged from 92.8 to 324 ng/L in the water DP, from 28.8 to 205 ng/L in the SPM, and from 55.7 to 381 ng/g (d.w.) in the sediment. Compared with other areas globally, the PAH levels were considerably moderate in the DP and SPM and relatively low in the sediment. Spatial distribution of PAHs was site-specific, and relatively higher PAH levels were found in the areas with dense population and heavy traffic. The PAH profile was dominated by two- and three-ring PAHs, and PAH pollution was identified of pyrolytic origins. Based on risk quotient, the ecological risk in water was ranked as moderate, but the adverse health risk associated with water ingestion was minimal. Naphthalene and fluorene of the sediment samples showed potential biological impairment in some locations; nevertheless, the mean effects range median quotient suggested that the ecological risk of multiple PAHs was quite low (less than 10% incidence of adverse effects).

Effects of ambient air pollution from municipal solid waste landfill on children's non-specific immunity and respiratory health.

This cross-sectional study investigated the association between air pollutant (AP) and respiratory health of 951 children residing near a municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill in Northern China. Results showed that students in non-exposure areas had significantly higher levels of lysozyme, secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), and better lung capacity than students in exposure areas (p < .05). Multiple regression model analysis indicated that lysozyme levels exhibited a consistent negative association with methane (CH4: ß = -76.3, 95% CI -105 to -47.7) and sulfuretted hydrogen (H2S: ß = -11.7, 95% CI -20.2 to -3.19). In addition, SIgA levels were negatively associated with H2S (ß = -68.9, 95% CI -97.9 to -39.9) and ammonia (NH3: ß = -30.3, 95% CI -51.7 to -8.96). Among all AP, H2S and sulfur dioxide (SO2) were the most robustly related with reduced lung function. H2S exposure was negatively associated with six lung function indices, 1-s forced expiratory volume (FEV1%), mean forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% (MMF), maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV), and forced expiratory flow at 25%, 50%, and 75% of the pulmonary volume (FEF25, FEF50, FEF75); and SO2 was negatively associated with FEV1%, MVV, FEF25, FEF50 and FEF75. Our results suggested that AP exposure was negatively associated with more lung function parameters in boys than in girls. In conclusion, our findings suggested that children living adjacent to landfill sites were more likely to have deficient non-specific immunity and impaired lung function.

Spatial-temporal trend and health implications of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in resident oysters, South China Sea: A case study of Eastern Guangdong coast.

Spatial and temporal distributions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were investigated in Eastern Guangdong coast, China. Total PAH concentrations in oysters ranged from 231 to 1178ng/g with a mean concentration of 622ng/g dry weight. Compared with other bays and estuaries, PAH levels in oysters were moderate. Spatial distribution of PAHs was site specific, with relatively high PAH concentrations observed in Zhelin Bay and Kaozhouyang Bay. Based on the Spearman test analysis, only PAH concentration in oysters from Jiazi Harbor showed a significant increasing trend (P<0.05). Three-ring PAHs were the most abundant, accounting for 54.2%-88.4% of total PAHs. Diagnostic ratios suggested that PAHs were derived mainly from petroleum origin. BaP and ∑4PAH concentrations were well within the European Union limits (5ng/g and 30ng/g wet weight, respectively). The incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCR) for PAHs were <10(-5), indicating that the adverse health risks associated with oyster consumption in this area were minimal.

Speciation and risk of heavy metals in sediments and human health implications of heavy metals in edible nekton in Beibu Gulf, China: A case study of Qinzhou Bay.

We investigated the total concentrations of heavy metals in surface sediments and nekton, along with sediment metal chemical partitioning in Qinzhou Bay of the Beibu Gulf. Cd was preferentially associated with the acid-soluble fraction and Pb mainly with the reducible fraction, whereas a major portion of Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn was strongly associated with the residual fractions. A principal component analysis (PCA) in sediment metal speciation revealed three groupings (Cd; Pb; Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn) that mainly resulted from different distributions of the metals in the various fractions. The Cr concentrations in nekton species were higher than maximum Cr concentrations permitted by the Chinese National Standard (GB 2762-2012). Taking as a whole, surface sediments of Qinzhou Bay had a 21% incidence calculation of adverse biological effects, based on the mean probable-effects-levels quotient. A human health risk assessment indicated no significant adverse health effects from consumption of nekton.

Heavy metal concentrations in wild fishes captured from the South China Sea and associated health risks.

Heavy metal concentrations were measured in 29 marine wild fish species from the South China Sea. Concentrations (wet weight) were 0.51-115.81 ng/g (Cd), 0.54-27.31 ng/g (Pb), 0.02-1.26 µg/g (Cr), 8.32-57.48 ng/g (Ni), 0.12-1.13 µg/g (Cu), 2.34-6.88 µg/g (Zn), 2.51-22.99 µg/g (Fe), and 0.04-0.81 µg/g (Mn), respectively. Iron concentrations in all and Mn in some fish species were higher than the acceptable daily upper limit, suggesting human consumption of these wild fish species may pose a health risk. Human health risk assessment, however, indicated no significant adverse health effects with consumption.