Preschool Aggression and Victimization: A Short-Term Longitudinal Analysis of the Immediate Social Environment.

Introduction: Preschool aggression, a significant concern, requires an in-depth examination beyond individual factors. This study explored the link between individual characteristics, immediate social environment variables, and the likelihood of preschoolers being nominated as aggressors or victims. The novelty of the study lies in its comprehensive longitudinal examination, using a multi-informant approach, of how family dynamics, peer relations, teacher-child interactions, and community factors are related to preschool aggression within the context of Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory. Methods: Data was collected at two points, four months apart, to investigate the interplay among sociodemographic, individual, family, and school factors and subsequent child aggression. The study included 394 children (184 girls, 210 boys), aged 3 to 6 years (M = 4.36, SD = 0.87). Caregivers completed questionnaires on socioeconomic status, community relationships, children's emotional regulation, and family functioning. Teachers rated closeness with each child, while children nominated liked and disliked peers, as well as those exhibiting aggressive or victimized behaviour. Results: Logistic regression models revealed stronger associations between peer aggression and victimization and individual factors over microsystems. Surprisingly, community cohesion showed a robust positive link with an increased likelihood of children being nominated as victims, challenging the assumption that positive parenting practices and strong community cohesion always leads to positive outcomes for individuals. Discussion: The study advances theoretical understanding by examining how factors within preschoolers' microsystems influence aggressive behaviors, contributing to more holistic models for addressing preschool aggression and victimization in schools. The findings highlight the significance of targeted interventions, emphasizing early identification of aggression or victimization signs and customized programs for social and emotional skill development. Addressing parental stress and interparental conflict is crucial. Additionally, community-based initiatives, like strengthening support networks, play a pivotal role in fostering healthier social dynamics among preschoolers.

Families, Parenting and Aggressive Preschoolers: A Scoping Review of Studies Examining Family Variables Related to Preschool Aggression.

BACKGROUND: A growing body of research has shown that children behave aggressively from an early age. In recent decades, such behaviour has become a focus of scientific interest, not only because of the adverse consequences of these interactions, but also because high levels of aggression, especially at an early age, may be a risk factor for the use of other forms of aggression, such as bullying, later on during their development. These behaviours are related not only to individual characteristics, but also to peer relationships, teacher behaviours, school variables, family factors and cultural influences. METHOD: In order to find out which family variables have been researched in relation to preschool aggression and which family variables are associated with perpetration and victimisation, a scoping review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. Four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed and PsycINFO) were used to map the studies published between 2000 and 2022. RESULTS: This scoping review included 39 peer-reviewed articles from an initial sample of 2002 of them. The majority of studies looked only at perpetration behaviours. The main family variables covered in the articles concern parental behaviours, adverse childhood experiences in the family environment, and the household structural and sociodemographic characteristics. CONCLUSION: This scoping review shows that different factors within the family environment increase the risk of developing aggressive and victimising behaviours in the preschool setting. However, the relationship between the family variables and preschool aggression is complex, and it may be mediated by other factors such as gender, child-teacher closeness or parent-child dyads.

Associations between Adverse Childhood Experiences within the Family Context and In-Person and Online Dating Violence in Adulthood: A Scoping Review.

Background: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are a common pathway to risky behaviour, violence or re-victimisation, disability, illness, and premature mortality and, as such, may be associated with victimisation and perpetration of dating violence not only in adolescence but also in adulthood. Method: A scoping review was performed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and PsycINFO) were used to search for studies published between 2000 and 2021 that analysed the relationship between adverse childhood experiences within the family context and the perpetration or victimisation of dating violence in adulthood. Results: The search yielded 599 articles, 32 of which met the inclusion criteria and were ultimately included in the review. Most of the study samples were from the United States. Most of the studies sampled university populations. The studies had a clear objective, were of an appropriate design, contained a detailed description of the sample, and used valid and reliable measurement instruments. Conclusion: This scoping review shows that the relationship between ACEs and perpetration and/or subsequent victimisation is complex and that, while adverse childhood experiences are a factor associated with adult dating violence, they are likely to coexist with other personal, family, and environmental problems. Therefore, adverse childhood experiences may not be a necessary or sufficient condition for experiencing dating violence.

Bullying/Cyberbullying en Quinto y Sexto Curso de Educación Primaria: Diferencias entre Contextos Rurales y Urbanos / Bullying/cyberbullying in 5th and 6th year of primary education: Differences between rural and urban areas

El objetivo del estudio ha sido analizar las diferencias de bullying (tradicional y cyberbullying) en contextos rurales y urbanos. Ha participado un total de 2,162 estudiantes de 5º (52.7%) y 6º (47.3%) de Educación Primaria, un 49.3% en contexto urbano y 50.7% en contexto rural. Los resultados indican un porcentaje de intervención similar en colegios de contexto urbano y de contexto rural. Sin embargo, en los colegios rurales se ha encontrado una mayor prevalencia de víctimas de bullying verbal, exclusión y cyberbullying, mientras que en los colegios urbanos hay más alumnos que son agresores de bullying verbal y exclusión. En los colegios rurales la agresión va más dirigida a los compañeros del colegio, mientras que en los colegios urbanos se dirige hacia gente de fuera del colegio. Estos resultados indican que el tamaño de la población en la que se ubican las escuelas puede ser un factor relevante para la intervención.

The aim of this study is to analyse the differences between bullying and cyberbullying in rural and urban areas. The number of students who have participated in this research is 2,162: 52.7% in their 5th year of Primary Education in Spain (ages 10-11) and 47.3 % in their 6th year (ages 11-12) – 50.7% of them were living in the countryside and 49.3% in the city. Although the results showed that the impact of bullying/cyberbullying in rural and urban schools is very similar, some distinctive features have been identified: for example, in rural schools there are more victims of verbal bullying, exclusion, and cyberbullying, whereas in urban schools there is a clear trend of verbal bullying and exclusion. Depending on the context, there is also a significant pattern regarding the victims: in rural schools, victims of this type of abuse are schoolmates, but in urban schools victims and aggressors do not go to the same school. The results also show that the impact of this abuse depends on the size of the city/town where schools are located.

Relationship between Socio-Emotional Competencies and the Overlap of Bullying and Cyberbullying Behaviors in Primary School Students.

Digital life forms part of daily reality for young people. For this reason, traditional bullying in school has been reproduced in the online environment, resulting in an overlap of off- and online bullying. Research on socio-emotional competencies and bullying is revealing interesting results among students in secondary schools. However, studies involving primary school students are much scarcer. In addition, the majority of studies have been carried out based on an understanding of socio-emotional competencies as a unidimensional construct. In the present study, we examined the overlap between off- and online bullying victimization and the influence of the factors comprising socio-emotional competencies on this overlap. Participants comprised 1130 students (49.7% were boys and 50.3% were girls) from the fifth and sixth grades at 15 schools in the autonomous communities of Madrid and Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). The results indicate a high rate of overlap between off- and online bullying victimization, without significant gender differences. Poor relationship skills in boys and low self-management in girls were associated with being a victim of both traditional bullying and cyberbullying. The conclusions point to an interesting line of intervention and prevention, establishing a framework of confluence for social and emotional variables within the primary education context.

The Role of Social-Interpersonal and Cognitive-Individual Factors in Cyber Dating Victimization and Perpetration: Comparing the Direct, Control, and Combined Forms of Abuse.

The present study examined the relationship linking social-interpersonal factors (interpersonal dependency, social support, social skills), cognitive-individual factors (planning behavior and goal efficacy), and different victimization and perpetration forms of cyber dating abuse (direct abuse, control abuse, and the combination of both abuse types). The responses of 1,657 Spanish university students were analyzed (62.1% females, 37.1% males). The multinomial logistic regression model revealed similarities among the three victim groups and revealed that anxious attachment and lack of social support increased the likelihood of direct victimization, control victimization, and direct/control victimization. Differences were found in the three victim groups for social skills and planning behavior. Perpetration was significantly associated with anxious attachment in the three cyber dating perpetration forms. Differences were also found in emotional dependency, social support, and social skills among direct perpetrators, control perpetrators, and direct/control perpetrators. The results revealed that interpersonal and cognitive factors correlated with cyber dating victimization and perpetration.

Psychological Correlates of Ghosting and Breadcrumbing Experiences: A Preliminary Study among Adults.

The present study aimed to examine differences in three psychological constructs (satisfaction with life, loneliness, and helplessness) among adults experiencing ghosting and breadcrumbing. A sample of 626 adults (303 males and 323 females), aged from 18 to 40 years, completed an online survey asking to indicate whether someone they considered a dating partner had ghosted or breadcrumbed them in the last year and to complete three different scales regarding satisfaction with life, loneliness, and helplessness. The results showed than those participants who had indicated experiencing breadcrumbing or the combined forms (both breadcrumbing and ghosting) reported less satisfaction with life, and more helplessness and self-perceived loneliness. The results from the regression models showed that suffering breadcrumbing would significantly increase the likelihood of experiencing less satisfaction with life, and of having more feelings of loneliness and helplessness. However, no significant relation was found between ghosting and any of the examined psychological correlates.

Relations among Poly-Bullying Victimization, Subjective Well-Being and Resilience in a Sample of Late Adolescents.

: The present study examined the relations among poly-bullying victimization (experiencing multiple forms of peer bullying), resilience and subjective well-being. This study specifically examined late adolescents' resilience as a moderator of the relation between poly-bullying victimization and subjective well-being. In a region of central Spain, 1430 undergraduate students (64% females, 36% males), aged between 18 and 22 years, completed three self-reported measures, including bullying victimization experiences, self-reported subjective well-being and resilience. A substantial proportion of the participants (16.9%) reported being victims of poly-bullying. The results showed that the poly-bullying victimization group reported the poorest subjective well-being and the lowest resilience levels. The regression analyses revealed that resilience was significantly and positively associated with subjective well-being, and resilience moderated the association between poly-bullying victimization and subjective well-being. However, the relation was very weak and accounted for only an additional 1% of variance in the participants' subjective well-being. Future research should assess resilience trajectories of youth exposed to multiple forms of bullying victimization in order to better understand the potential protective effect of resilience over negative mental health outcomes.

Abuso online en el noviazgo y su relación con el abuso del móvil, la aceptación de la violencia y los mitos sobre el amor / Cyber dating abuse and its association with mobile abuse, acceptance of violence and myths of love

Resumen El presente estudio tiene como objetivo analizar la prevalencia y las diferencias en la frecuencia y cronicidad del abuso online en el noviazgo de acuerdo con distintas variables sociodemográficas. Además, se analiza su relación con los mitos del amor romántico, el abuso del móvil y la aceptación de la violencia. Usando una muestra de 1657 estudiantes universitarios, los resultados revelaron que el 43.3% de los encuestados fueron perpetradores y el 42% víctimas de al menos un comportamiento de abuso online en el noviazgo durante los últimos doce meses. Se encontraron diferencias significativas en el abuso online de acuerdo con el sexo, la edad, la orientación sexual, ingresos medios anuales familiares y el nivel educativo de los padres. Final mente, los resultados revelaron una relación significativa entre el abuso online en el noviazgo con el abuso del móvil, los mitos del amor romántico, y la aceptación de la violencia.

Abstract The present study aimed to analyze the prevalence, and the differences in the fre quency and chronicity of cyber dating abuse according to different sociodemographic variables. Additionally, the relationship of cyber dating abuse with the myths of romantic love, mobile abuse and acceptance of violence was analyzed. Using a sample of 1,657 university students, the results revealed that 43.3% of the respondents were perpetrators and 42% were victims of at least one behavior of dating online abuse during the last 12 months. Significant differences were found in cyber dating abuse according to sex, age, sexual orientation, family income and parent's educational level. Finally, the results revealed a significant relationship between cy ber dating abuse, mobile abuse, the myths of romantic love, and the acceptance of violence.

Associations between Feminine Gender Norms and Cyber Dating Abuse in Female Adults.

Gender norms and the co-occurrence of perpetration and victimization behaviors have been examined as key factors of female dating violence in offline contexts. However, these relationships have not been analyzed in digital environments. This is why the present study had a twofold objective: (1) exploring the co-occurrence nature of cyber dating abuse by examining to what extent victimization and perpetration overlap; (2) examining the associations between conformity to feminine gender norms and cyber dating abuse among female adults who are perpetrators or victims. The sample study included 1041 female university students (mean age = 20.51) from central Spain. The results indicated that 35.8% of the sample reported being a victim and a perpetrator of cyber dating abuse at the same time. Indeed, the hierarchical regression analyses revealed a close association between perpetration and victimization behaviors in both the direct and control forms of abuse examined. Our analyses did not reveal any significant associations between conformity to female gender norms and perpetration or victimization for any cyber dating abuse form examined. Our results are discussed in the light of previous research and after considering limitations, practical implications and future research directions.

Health Contributing Factors in Higher Education Students: The Importance of Family and Friends.

The aim of this study was to determine well-being and its relationship to social support from friends and family communication in university students. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 1679 university students aged 18⁻25 years from four universities in Spain. Logistical regression models were tested (p < 0.05). The students in the last year of university reported higher well-being scores in comparison with students in the previous years. Well-being was inversely related to family communication problems. Family communication and social support from friends were the factors that associated the most with better well-being. All the regression models were statistically significant and explained from 16% of the well-being in Year 4 students until 34% of the well-being in Year 1 students. Our findings could be useful for developing interventions to promote health in order to improve college students' well-being. It is important for strategies to be developed in mental and family health areas.

Padres, hijos e internet. Socialización familiar de la red / Parents, Children and Internet Use. Family Socialization on the Internet

Resumen Estudios previos muestran resultados dispares en relación con la efectividad de la mediación parental en el uso de Internet. El objetivo fue analizar la influencia de los padres sobre el empleo de la red que llevan a cabo los hijos. Participaron en el estudio 938 familias con hijos entre 12 y 17 años. El análisis de regresión destaca la importancia del modelaje de los padres. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que la acción de los padres sobre el empleo de Internet de los hijos está mediada por el empleo que ellos mismos realizan de Internet. Este estudio apunta a la necesidad de que los padres se impliquen en los procesos de socialización sobre el uso de Internet.

Abstract Previous research has shown mixed results regarding the effectiveness of parental mediation in the Internet use. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the influence of parents on adolescent's Internet use. Sample consisted in 938 Spanish families with adolescents aged between 12-to-17 years old. Regression analysis confirmed the relationship between adolescents' Internet use and family variables, emphasizing the importance of modeling performed by parents. Specifically, results showed that the effect of parents' actions over their children's Internet use is mediated by the parent's use of the Internet. This study points out the need for parents to be involved in the socialization processes related with Internet use.

Negative Peer Relationships on Piracy Behavior: A Cross-Sectional Study of the Associations between Cyberbullying Involvement and Digital Piracy.

The present study examines the relationship between different roles in cyberbullying behaviors (cyberbullies, cybervictims, cyberbullies-victims, and uninvolved) and self-reported digital piracy. In a region of central Spain, 643 (49.3% females, 50.7% males) students (grades 7-10) completed a number of self-reported measures, including cyberbullying victimization and perpetration, self-reported digital piracy, ethical considerations of digital piracy, time spent on the Internet, and leisure activities related with digital content. The results of a series of hierarchical multiple regression models for the whole sample indicate that cyberbullies and cyberbullies-victims are associated with more reports of digital piracy. Subsequent hierarchical multiple regression analyses, done separately for males and females, indicate that the relationship between cyberbullying and self-reported digital piracy is sustained only for males. The ANCOVA analysis show that, after controlling for gender, self-reported digital piracy and time spent on the Internet, cyberbullies and cyberbullies-victims believe that digital piracy is a more ethically and morally acceptable behavior than victims and uninvolved adolescents believe. The results provide insight into the association between two deviant behaviors.

Validación de la versión española de la Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents (GRCS-A) / Validation of the Spanish version Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents (GRCS-A)

La Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents (GRCS-A) mide el conflicto de rol de género de los adolescentes. La GRCS-A se compone de cuatro factores referidos a distintos patrones de conflicto (afecto limitado entre hombres, emotividad restringida, conflicto entre trabajo, escuela y familia, y necesidad de éxito y logro). El objetivo de este estudio es analizar la estructura factorial de la versión española de la GRCS-A y la congruencia factorial con los datos de la versión inglesa. Nuestra muestra está compuesta por 1595 estudiantes varones de Enseñanza Secundaria y Bachillerato de diferentes centros educativos de Castilla-La Mancha y Castilla y León (España). Se examinó la correlación de la escala con el sexismo y el acoso escolar, y se analizaron las diferencias de acuerdo a la edad en la experimentación de los distintos patrones de conflicto. Los análisis factoriales, exploratorio y confirmatorio, replicaron la estructura factorial de la versión original y las correlaciones mostraron que el conflicto de rol de género está relacionado con el sexismo y el acoso escolar. El análisis de regresión mostró la influencia de la edad en el conflicto de rol de género (AU)

Gender role conflict scale for adolescents (GRCS-A) measures the gender role conflict experienced by adolescents. GRCS-A consists of four patterns, namely Restricted affection between men, Restricted emotionality, Conflict between work, school, and family, and Need for success and achievement. The objective of this study was to analyze the factorial structure of the Spanish version of GRCS-A and the factorial congruence with the original version using a sample of 1595 male adolescents from Castilla-La Mancha and Castilla y León (Spain). Correlations between GRCS-A and sexism and bullying were examined. Age differences in the experimentation of gender role conflict patterns were also analyzed. Exploratory and confirmatory factorial analysis replicated the original factorial structure and correlation analysis showed that Gender role conflict is related to sexism and bullying. Regression analysis showed a significant effect of age over the gender role conflict (AU)

Sexismo y comportamiento de acoso escolar en adolescentes / Sexism and bullying among adolescents

A partir de la teoría del sexismo ambivalente se analizan las creencias sexistas en 3193 estudiantes (50,4% hombres) de Educación Secundaria de la comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha (España). El objetivo de este trabajo es estudiar la relación de la violencia entre iguales en el contexto escolar con las creencias sexistas de los adolescentes y con las formas en que la manifiestan los chicos. Se utilizaron para la recogida de datos el “Inventario de sexismo ambivalente” y “el Instrumento para evaluar la incidencia de participación en interacciones acosador/víctima en la escuela”. Los resultados señalan la influencia de las creencias sexistas en el patrón de acoso entre iguales. Se describen y analizan estos resultados y sus posibles implicaciones en el diseño de actuaciones preventivas (AU)

Sexist beliefs from 3193 secondary school students (50.4% men) of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) are analyzed in the light of ambivalent sexism theory. This research aims to study the relationship between school bullying and adolescent’s sexist beliefs, especially among male youths. The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory and the Instrument to assess the incidence of involvement in bully/victim interactions at school were used to gather data. The results show that sexism has significant effects on bullying behaviors. The results are discussed and taken into consideration in the design of prevention interventions

Influencia del género y del sexo en las actitudes sexuales de estudiantes universitarios españoles / Influence of the sex and gender in the sexual attitudes in Spanish university students

Los jóvenes son un grupo de especial importancia en la prevención de la salud sexual, lo que lleva a que resulte de interés el análisis de los factores que determinan la conducta sexual. El propósito de este trabajo fue estudiar la relación entre el género y la sexualidad. Concretamente, el objetivo ha sido analizar la relación entre el machismo y los mitos románticos con las actitudes sexuales. Se ha empleado un cuestionario autoadministrado que consta de tres escalas, Double Standard Scale, Escala de Mitos Románticos y Escala de Actitudes Sexuales, a 262 estudiantes de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha (España). Los datos fueron recogidos durante el curso 2011-2012. Hemos aplicado análisis univariantes para conocer las relaciones entre las variables. Los resultados indican que las actitudes sexuales están vinculadas con el machismo y los mitos románticos. En futuros programas de intervención y de educación sexual es necesario considerar la variable de género.

The young people is a group of special importance for the prevention of health sexuality, reason why it turns out from interest to study the determinants of sexual behavior. The purpose of this study was to examine the link between gender and sexuality. The objective was to analyze the machism and romantic myths associated with sexual attitudes. For the survey, a self-administered paper based questionnaire was used. The Double Standard Scale, Romantic Myths Scale and Sexual Attitudes Scale were administered to a sample of 262 university students of University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). Data were collected between 2011 and 2012. Were used univariant model were estimated to relation about factors. The results of this study indicate that sexual attitudes are relation with machism and romantics myths. The gender should be taken into consideration in planning prevention programmes and sexual education.

Acoso laboral: un enfoque psicosocial / Mobbing: a psychosocial approach

A medida que la investigación está encontrando unas tasas de acoso psicosocial en el lugar del trabajo (mobbing) cada día más altas, más preocupante está siendo este tema, hasta aparecer actualmente como un fenómeno realmente alarmante por los perniciosos efectos que tiene para los millones de trabajadores de la Unión Europea que lo sufren, así como por las consecuencias negativas que ello tiene también para las empresas, para la sociedad entera y para la propia democracia. En este artículo se pretende analizar qué es y en qué consiste realmente el acoso laboral, cuál es la causa de su aumento a lo largo de los últimos años, qué efectos individuales y sociales está teniendo y qué podemos hacer para evitarlo. Finalmente, se plantean tendencias y líneas de investigación futura (AU)

Research findings indicate increasing harassment, aggression and violence in the workplace. This phenomenon is more frequent than usually imagined and has become a serious social problem whose effects present a danger for millions of workers, for society and for democracies. This analyzes the nature of mobbing or harassment in the workplace, its consequences and prevention. Finally, this paper proposes some lines for future research

Parenting styles and adolescents' self-esteem in Brazil.

This study explored the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem among 1,239 11- to 15-yr.-old Brazilian adolescents (54% girls; M age= 13.4 yr., SD= 1.4). Teenagers' families were classified into 1 of 4 groups (Authoritative, Authoritarian, Indulgent, or Neglectful) based on adolescents' answers to the ESPA29 Parental Socialization Scale. Participants completed the AF5 Multidimensional Self-Esteem Scale which appraises five dimensions: Academic, Social, Emotional, Family, and Physical. Analyses showed that Brazilian adolescents from Indulgent families scored equal (Academic and Social) or higher (Family) in Self-esteem than adolescents from Authoritative families. Adolescents from Indulgent families scored higher than adolescents from Authoritarian and Neglectful families in four Self-esteem dimensions, Academic, Social, Family, and Physical. Adolescents from Authoritative families scored higher than adolescents from Authoritarian and Neglectful families in three Self-esteem dimensions, Academic, Social, and Family. These results suggest that Authoritative parenting is not associated with optimum self-esteem in Brazil.

La identificación en las organizaciones y su relación con la prototipicidad y el conflicto entre grupos profesionales / Identification in organizations and its relationship with prototypicality and conflict between organizational groups

Se estudia el proceso de identificación de 282 trabajadores representantes de un importante y numeroso grupo profesional de una organización universitaria, con el fin de averiguar si ese proceso genera una identidad con la organización en su conjunto o se limita al grupo profesional. Los resultados muestran la existencia de una fuerte relación de rivalidad con otro grupo profesional de la misma organización, que se evidencia en la nitidez y diferenciación de los prototipos grupales, lo que descarta la posibilidad de una identificación organizacional propiamente dicha. A su vez, el grado de prototipicidad guarda relación con la intensidad de la actitud negativa hacia el grupo rival y alerta de la probabilidad de un conflicto intraorganizacional

The scope and nature of the identification process of 282 workers representative of an important professional group of a university organization is analyzed in an attempt to ascertain if they identify mainly with their organization as a whole or with their professional group. A strong rivalry between the group object of the study and another professional group of the same organization manifests itself through a remarkable differentiation of group prototypes, which precludes the possibility of an overarching, supraordinate organizational identification. In addition, the degree of group prototypicality is related to the intensity of the negative attitude toward the rival group and can be taken as a predictor of a likely intra-organizational conflict

[Identification in organizations and its relationship with prototypicality and conflict between organizational groups]. / La identificación en las organizaciones y su relación con la prototipicidad y el conflicto entre grupos profesionales.

The scope and nature of the identification process of 282 workers representative of an important professional group of a university organization is analyzed in an attempt to ascertain if they identify mainly with their organization as a whole or with their professional group. A strong rivalry between the group object of the study and another professional group of the same organization manifests itself through a remarkable differentiation of group prototypes, which precludes the possibility of an overarching, supraordinate organizational identification. In addition, the degree of group prototypicality is related to the intensity of the negative attitude toward the rival group and can be taken as a predictor of a likely intra-organizational conflict.