Novel His-tag Variants for Insertion Inside Polypeptide Chain.

His-tags are protein affinity tags ubiquitously used due to their convenience and effectiveness. However, in some individual cases, the attachment of His-tags to a protein's N- or C-termini resulted in impairment of the protein's structure or function, which led to attempts to include His-tags inside of polypeptide chains. In this work, we describe newly designed internal His-tags, where two triplets of histidine residues are separated by glycine residues to avoid steric hindrances and consequently minimize their impact on the protein structure. The applicability of these His-tags was tested with eGFP, a multifaceted reference protein, and GrAD207, a modified apical domain of GroEL chaperone, designed to stabilize in soluble form initially insoluble proteins. Both proteins are used as fusion partners for different purposes, and providing them with His-tags introduced into their polypeptide chains should conveniently broaden their functionality without involving the termini. We conclude that the insertable tags may be adjusted for the purification of proteins belonging to different structural classes.

Thermostable chaperone-based polypeptide biosynthesis: Enfuvirtide model product quality and protocol-related impurities.

Large peptide biosynthesis is a valuable alternative to conventional chemical synthesis. Enfuvirtide, the largest therapeutic peptide used in HIV infection treatment, was synthesized in our thermostable chaperone-based peptide biosynthesis system and evaluated for peptide quality as well as the profile of process-related impurities. Host cell proteins (HCPs) and BrCN cleavage-modified peptides were evaluated by LC-MS in intermediate. Cleavage modifications during the reaction were assessed after LC-MS maps were aligned by simple in-house algorithm and formylation/oxidation levels were estimated. Circular dichroism spectra of the obtained enfuvirtide were compared to the those of the chemically- synthesized standard product. Final-product endotoxin and HCPs content were assessed resulting 1.06 EU/mg and 5.58 ppm respectively. Peptide therapeutic activity was measured using the MT-4 cells HIV infection-inhibition model. The biosynthetic peptide IC50 was 0.0453 µM while the standard one had 0.0180 µM. Non-acylated C-terminus was proposed as a cause of IC50 and CD spectra difference. Otherwise, the peptide has met all the requirements of the original chemically synthesized enfuvirtide in the cell-culture and in vivo experiments.

Enfuvirtide biosynthesis in thermostable chaperone-based fusion.

Synthetic peptides are in high demand as biologically active substances. Solid phase synthesis is the primary method of peptide production. However, it has drawbacks: large amount of chemical waste and rapid increase in price with peptide length. Biosynthesis is intended as method to bypass these flaws. Direct biosynthesis is usually not effective and among other approaches for improving quality and quantity of target product fusion partners are widely used. In this study we used a thermostable chaperon-based fusion partner developed by us to produce enfuvirtide in Escherichia coli expression system. Fusion partner's thermal stability provided additional purification mode by thermal denaturation of host proteins in lysate. Fusion protein was purified by ion exchange chromatography after lysate heating step and was then hydrolyzed with cyanogen bromide to release enfuvirtide. Enfuvirtide was isolated by RP-HPLC up to 94% purity with total yield of 2.86-3.31 mg per 1 L of low-density culture. The data demonstrate the posibility of thermostable chaperone-based fusion partner GroEL use for effective peptide biosynthesis.

GroEL-A Versatile Chaperone for Engineering and a Plethora of Applications.

Chaperones play a vital role in the life of cells by facilitating the correct folding of other proteins and maintaining them in a functional state, being themselves, as a rule, more stable than the rest of cell proteins. Their functional properties naturally tempt investigators to actively adapt them for biotechnology needs. This review will mostly focus on the applications found for the bacterial chaperonin GroE and its counterparts from other organisms, in biotechnology or for research purposes, both in their engineered or intact versions.

Production of a toxic polypeptide as a fusion inside GroEL cavity.

The system is developed for efficient biosynthetic production of difficult-to-express polypeptides. A target polypeptide is produced fused into T. thermophilus GroEL chaperonin polypeptide chain in such a way that it is presented inside the GroEL cavity near the substrate binding surface. Such presentation allows alleviating potential problems of instability, toxicity or hydrophobicity of the fused peptide. Thermostability of thermophilic GroEL can be used for its one-step separation from the host cell proteins by heating. The target polypeptide may be released by any of amino acid-specific chemical treatments. In this study, GroEL was adapted for methionine-specific cleavage with cyanogen bromide by total replacement of methionine residues to facilitate further purification of the target polypeptide. The procedure is simple, robust and easy to scale-up. The capacity of this system to produce difficult-to-express polypeptides is demonstrated by production in bacterial system of one of the most potent antibacterial peptides polyphemusin I.

Versatile format of minichaperone-based protein fusion system.

Hydrophobic recombinant proteins often tend to aggregate upon expression into inclusion bodies and are difficult to refold. Producing them in soluble forms constitutes a common bottleneck problem. A fusion system for production of insoluble hydrophobic proteins in soluble stable forms with thermophilic minichaperone, GroEL apical domain (GrAD) as a carrier, has recently been developed. To provide the utmost flexibility of the system for interactions between the carrier and various target protein moieties a strategy of making permutated protein variants by gene engineering has been applied: the original N- and C-termini of the minichaperone were linked together by a polypeptide linker and new N- and C-termini were made at desired parts of the protein surface. Two permutated GrAD forms were created and analyzed. Constructs of GrAD and both of its permutated forms fused with the initially insoluble N-terminal fragment of hepatitis C virus' E2 protein were tested. Expressed fusions formed inclusion bodies. After denaturation, all fusions were completely renatured in stable soluble forms. A variety of permutated GrAD variants can be created. The versatile format of the system provides opportunities for choosing an optimal pair between particular target protein moiety and the best-suited original or specific permutated carrier.

Study of rubella candidate vaccine based on a structurally modified plant virus.

A novel rubella candidate vaccine based on a structurally modified plant virus - spherical particles (SPs) - was developed. SPs generated by the thermal remodelling of the tobacco mosaic virus are promising platforms for the development of vaccines. SPs combine unique properties: biosafety, stability, high immunogenicity and the effective adsorption of antigens. We assembled in vitro and characterised complexes (candidate vaccine) based on SPs and the rubella virus recombinant antigen. The candidate vaccine induced a strong humoral immune response against rubella. The IgG isotypes ratio indicated the predominance of IgG1 which plays a key role in immunity to natural rubella infection. The immune response was generally directed against the rubella antigen within the complexes. We suggest that SPs can act as a platform (depot) for the rubella antigen, enhancing specific immune response. Our results demonstrate that SPs-antigen complexes can be an effective and safe candidate vaccine against rubella.

A minichaperone-based fusion system for producing insoluble proteins in soluble stable forms.

We have developed a fusion system for reliable production of insoluble hydrophobic proteins in soluble stable forms. A carrier is thermophilic minichaperone, GroEL apical domain (GrAD), a 15 kDa monomer able to bind diverse protein substrates. The Met-less variant of GrAD has been made for further convenient use of Met-specific CNBr chemical cleavage, if desired. The Met-less GrAD retained stability and solubility of the original protein. Target polypeptides can be fused to either C-terminus or N-terminus of GrAD. The system has been tested with two unrelated insoluble proteins fused to the C-terminus of GrAD. One of the proteins was also fused to GrAD N-terminus. The fusions formed inclusion bodies at 25°C and above and were partly soluble only at lower expression temperatures. Most importantly, however, after denaturation in urea, all fusions without exception were completely renatured in soluble stable forms that safely survived freezing-thawing as well as lyophilization. All fusions for both tested target proteins retained solubility at high concentrations for days. Functional analysis revealed that a target protein may retain functionality in the fusion. Convenience features include potential thermostability of GrAD fusions, capacity for chemical and enzymatic cleavage of a target and His6 tag for purification.

A mechanistic study of the photodegradation of herbicide 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid in aqueous solution.

Photodegradation of herbicide 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) in aqueous solution was investigated by stationary (254 nm) and nanosecond laser (266 nm) flash photolysis techniques. It was shown that in the primary photochemical step both photoionization (which generates a hydrated electron-radical cation pair) and heterolytic cleavage of a C-Cl bond takes place. The major products of substitution of one of the chlorine atoms in the 2-, 4- or 5-position by a hydroxyl group as well as the products of hydroxylation of the benzene ring in 3- and 6-positions were identified by HPLC and LC-MS methods. The complexation of 2,4,5-T with ß- and γ-cyclodextrins (ß(γ)CD) was investigated. The influence of such complexation on the quantum yield of herbicide photolysis and on the ratio of photodegradation products was determined.

Efficient refolding of a hydrophobic protein with multiple S-S bonds by on-resin immobilized metal affinity chromatography.

The efficient refolding of recombinant proteins produced in the form of inclusion bodies (IBs) in Escherichia coli still is a complicated experimental problem especially for large hydrophobic highly disulfide-bonded proteins. The aim of this work was to develop highly efficient and simple refolding procedure for such a protein. The recombinant C-terminal fragment of human alpha-fetoprotein (rAFP-Cterm), which has molecular weight of 26 kDa and possesses 6 S-S bonds, was expressed in the form of IBs in E. coli. The C-terminal 7× His tag was introduced to facilitate protein purification and refolding. The refolding procedure of the immobilized protein by immobilized metal chelating chromatography (IMAC) was developed. Such hydrophobic highly disulfide-bonded proteins tend to irreversibly bind to traditionally used agarose-based matrices upon attempted refolding of the immobilized protein. Indeed, the yield of rAFP-Cterm upon its refolding by IMAC on agarose-based matrix was negligible with bulk of the protein irreversibly stacked to the resin. The key has occurred to be using IMAC based on silica matrix. This increased on-resin refolding yield of the target protein from almost 0 to 60% with purity 98%. Compared to dilution refolding of the same protein, the productivity of the developed procedure was two orders higher. There was no need for further purification or concentration of the renatured protein. The usage of silica-based matrix for the refolding of immobilized proteins by IMAC can improve and facilitate the experimental work for difficult-to-refold proteins.

High-efficient expression, refolding and purification of functional recombinant C-terminal fragment of human alpha-fetoprotein.

Human alpha-fetoprotein (hAFP) is an oncofetal protein which is a common cancer marker. Conjugates of native hAFP with different cytostatic agents inhibit growth of cancer cells in vivo and in vitro. The hAFP interacts with its receptor (AFPR) on the surface of cancer cells via its C-terminal domain. The aim of this work was to develop a highly efficient expression system in Escherichia coli and efficient refolding procedure for the recombinant C-terminal fragment of hAFP (rAFP-Cterm) and to characterize its functional properties. C-terminal fragment of hAFP (rAFP-Cterm) comprising amino acids from 404 to 609 was expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3) strain with high yield. High efficient purification and refolding procedures were developed giving yield of refolded protein about 80% with purity about 95%. The refolded rAFP-Cterm bound specifically with cancer cells carrying AFPR and was accumulated by them with the same efficiency as native hAFP. This rAFP-Cterm can be used as a vehicle for the targeted delivery of drugs to cancer cells.

Characterisation of bacterially expressed structural protein E2 of hepatitis C virus.

The E2 glycoprotein is a structural component of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) virion. It interacts with putative cellular receptors, elicits production of neutralising antibodies against the virus, and is involved in viral morphogenesis. The protein is considered as a major candidate for anti-HCV vaccine. Despite this, relatively little is known about this protein. Previous studies have focused on the antigenic and functional analysis of the glycosylated forms. This report describes expression of the ectodomain of E2 (recE2) in Escherichia coli cells, its purification, and initial characterisation of its structural and functional properties. It is demonstrated that the purified protein forms small soluble aggregates, which retain functional characteristics of its native counterpart, i.e., it interacts with a putative cellular receptor, CD81, and is recognised by both conformation-dependent and -independent anti-E2 monoclonal antibodies.