ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine adrenocortical activity (basal, diurnal variation, and responses to social stressors) in adolescents at risk for psychopathology. Salivary cortisol levels were examined in normally developing and at-risk youth with internalizing and externalizing symptoms ranging from subclinical to clinical levels. Adolescents showed expected patterns of diurnal variation, with high early morning cortisol levels and a pattern of decline throughout the day. Females showed higher midday and late afternoon levels than males, and these patterns interacted with risk status. Internalizing problems sometimes were associated with gradual rather than steep declines in basal cortisol production. Both immediate and delayed cortisol reactivity to a social performance stressor were associated with internalizing symptoms. There was no evidence of relations between externalizing problems and underarousal of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system. These and other results suggest that gender is an important moderating factor linking psychopathology. development, and context with HPA axis functioning in adolescence.
Subject(s)
Circadian Rhythm/physiology , Hydrocortisone/analysis , Hydrocortisone/metabolism , Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism , Pituitary-Adrenal System/metabolism , Saliva/chemistry , Social Environment , Stress, Psychological/metabolism , Adolescent , Adolescent Behavior/physiology , Child , Female , Humans , Male , Mental Disorders/etiology , Mental Disorders/metabolism , Risk Factors , Stress, Psychological/psychologyABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: In previous research, low resting heart rate in childhood and adolescence has been shown to predict aggressive and/or delinquent behavior at subsequent ages. It has been found that heart rate recorded as early as age 3 years could predict externalizing behavior at age 11 years. This study explored the possibility of a similar relationship between heart rate and externalizing behavior problems. METHOD: Heart rate recorded at ages 14, 20, 24, 36 months and 7 years was used to predict combined parental ratings on the Aggressive and Delinquent Behavior scales of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4-18) as well as the Externalizing composite scale measured at age 7 years. Subjects consisted of same-sex twin pairs, treated as singletons in the present study, participating in the MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study. Subjects were grouped into high and low heart rate groups and also into high CBCL/4-18 scoring and low CBCL/4-18 scoring groups. RESULTS: Heart rate was not significantly related to scores on either of the 2 subscales or the Externalizing composite scale at any age. Heart rate group membership did not predict CBCL/4-18 scores. Conversely, CBCL/4-18 group membership did not predict heart rate at any age. CONCLUSION: In this sample, heart rate does not predict externalizing behavior at age 7.
Subject(s)
Arousal , Child Behavior Disorders/diagnosis , Heart Rate , Internal-External Control , Arousal/genetics , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Heart Rate/genetics , Humans , Infant , MaleABSTRACT
The focus of this article is on internalizing problems that are experienced by children and adolescents. We provide an historical perspective, selectively examine the current state of knowledge, consider advances and gaps in what is known, and identify new research directions. Diagnosis, epidemiology, theory, and research first are considered separately for anxiety and depressive disorders. These internalizing problems, however, whether clinical or subclinical, share many common features and show high comorbidity rates. We emphasize the importance of systematic analysis of comorbid anxiety and depression, including their comorbidity with externalizing problems. This could lead to more valid classification of subtypes of internalizing problems and further an understanding of the diverse conditions that constitute internalized distress. We highlight the need to study anxiety and depression within a developmental psychopathology framework, as well as to include both categorical and dimensional assessments of these problems in the same research designs. This will be essential for understanding the complex interplay of biological and environmental processes that contribute to the emergence, progression, and amelioration of internalizing problems over time.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Behavior/psychology , Anxiety Disorders/psychology , Child Behavior/psychology , Child Development/physiology , Depressive Disorder, Major/psychology , Mental Disorders/psychology , Adolescent , Affect/physiology , Child , Child, Preschool , Culture , Female , Humans , Male , Psychology, Child , Sex FactorsABSTRACT
Parental emotions and behaviors that contribute to continuity and change in preschool children's externalizing problems were examined. Mothers and fathers were observed interacting with their children, and child-rearing styles were reported. Teachers, mothers, and children reported children's antisocial, oppositional behavior. Externalizing problems showed strong continuity 2 and 4 years later. Proactive parenting (i.e., supportive presence, clear instruction, and limit setting) predicted fewer behavior problems over time, after controlling for initial problems; the converse was true for parental anger. In contrast, the hypothesized ameliorative contribution of parents' positive emotion was not found. Parental contributions were most influential for children whose initial problems were in the clinical range. In particular, parental anger predicted continuation of problems over time. Paternal, as well as maternal, influences were identified. Examination of parental emotions and inclusion of fathers is important to research and intervention with young antisocial children.
Subject(s)
Affect , Child Behavior Disorders/diagnosis , Parent-Child Relations , Parents/psychology , Socialization , Child , Child Behavior Disorders/psychology , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Male , Play and Playthings , Predictive Value of TestsABSTRACT
Heart rate was recorded on 210 MZ and 174 DZ same sex twin pairs participating in the MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study (MALTS) at age 14, 20, 24, 36 months and 7 years. Heart rate was monitored in the laboratory at all ages. At ages 14 to 36 months, heart rate was monitored prior to a set of cognitive tasks. At age 7 years heart rate was recorded during a mood-eliciting videotaped presentation. At this age only heart rate monitored during neutral portions of the presentation were used. Mean heart rate declines substantially across this age range, but is similar in boys and girls and for MZ and DZ twins at each age. Heart rate is moderately correlated across all time points suggesting that individual differences in heart rate are relatively stable over this age range. Multivariate genetic and environmental models were fitted to the raw data. In general, genetic factors contribute to the stability of individual differences over time. Shared and non-shared environment factors tended to be occasion specific, with non-shared environment contributing substantially to the individual variation at each age. Shared environment and non-shared environment also contributed a modicum to the stability across time. Thus, individual differences in resting heart rate is a relatively stable, heritable trait from infancy to early childhood.
Subject(s)
Environment , Heart Rate/genetics , Heart Rate/physiology , Twins, Dizygotic/genetics , Twins, Dizygotic/psychology , Twins, Monozygotic/genetics , Twins, Monozygotic/psychology , Affect , Age Factors , Child , Child Behavior/physiology , Child Behavior/psychology , Child, Preschool , Colorado , Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic , Female , Genetic Variation/genetics , Humans , Infant , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Models, Genetic , Monitoring, Physiologic , Multivariate Analysis , Neuropsychological Tests , Videotape RecordingABSTRACT
The role of infant and toddler temperament in the prediction of empathy in 2-year-old children was examined. Assessments of temperament included reactivity and affect observed at 4 months of age, as well as inhibition at Age 2. Empathy was measured in 2-year-old children's responses to simulations of distress performed by their mothers and by an unfamiliar person. Children showed relatively more concern for the mother's distress, but they were also responsive to unfamiliar victims. Infants who were unreactive and showed little affect also showed less empathy toward the unfamiliar adult almost 2 years later. Inhibition toward an unfamiliar adult (but not toward the mother) at 2 years of age was negatively related to empathy. Inhibited temperament may thus have a major impact on young children's empathy in unfamiliar contexts. Findings also highlight the need to consider early underarousal as another dimension of temperament that may dampen expressions of empathic concern.
Subject(s)
Child Behavior/psychology , Empathy , Temperament/physiology , Adult , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Inhibition, Psychological , Male , Psychology, ChildABSTRACT
Emotion regulation (ER) was assessed during a negative mood induction in 79 preschoolers who varied in degree of behavior problems. Facial expressivity during the induction was used to identify 3 ER groups: inexpressive, modulated expressive, and highly expressive. Group differences in ER were significantly related to heart rate and skin conductance. Inexpressive preschoolers had the highest heart rate, lowest vagal tone, and smallest autonomic nervous system (ANS) change during the induction. Highly expressive preschoolers had the slowest heart rate, highest vagal tone, and largest ANS change. The inexpressive and highly expressive groups had more externalizing symptoms than the modulated group at preschool age and at follow-up at the end of 1st grade. Inexpressive preschoolers appeared to have more depressed and anxious symptoms at follow-up.
Subject(s)
Adaptation, Psychological , Affective Symptoms/diagnosis , Child Behavior Disorders/diagnosis , Individuality , Affective Symptoms/psychology , Anxiety/diagnosis , Anxiety/psychology , Arousal , Child Behavior Disorders/psychology , Child, Preschool , Depression/diagnosis , Depression/psychology , Facial Expression , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Galvanic Skin Response , Heart Rate , Humans , Internal-External Control , Male , Personality AssessmentABSTRACT
Japanese and U.S. preschool children's responses to hypothetical interpersonal dilemmas were examined as a function of culture, gender, and maternal child-rearing values. U.S. children showed more anger, more aggressive behavior and language, and underregulation of emotion than Japanese children, across different contexts of assessment. Children from the 2 cultures appeared more similar on prosocial and avoidant patterns, though in some contexts U.S. children also showed more prosocial themes. Girls from both cultures expressed more prosocial themes and sometimes more anger than boys. Maternal encouragement of children's emotional expressivity was correlated with anger and aggression in children. It was more characteristic of U.S. than Japanese mothers, while emphasis on psychological discipline (reasoning; guilt and anxiety induction) was more characteristic of Japanese than U.S. mothers. The relevance of a conceptual framework that focuses on differences in Eastern and Western cultures in self-construals regarding independence and interdependence is considered.
Subject(s)
Adaptation, Psychological , Conflict, Psychological , Cross-Cultural Comparison , Interpersonal Relations , Personality Development , Aggression/psychology , Anger , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Gender Identity , Humans , Japan , Male , Mother-Child Relations , Parenting/psychology , Social Values , Socialization , United StatesABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: To determine whether depressed mothers who had had psychotherapy were more able to communicate accurately about emotions than depressed mothers who had not had treatment. METHOD: Three groups of mother-child pairs were studied: mothers without psychiatric diagnosis or treatment (n = 31), depressed mothers without treatment (n = 10), and depressed mothers with psychotherapy (n = 43). Photographs of infants expressing emotions were viewed and discussed by the mother-child pair and were rated independently. RESULTS: A comparison by analysis of variance and Duncan procedures revealed significant differences between groups in both mothers' and children's accuracy scores. Mothers who had had psychotherapy were more able to interpret emotional expression with accuracy (p < .05), particularly about negative emotions such as anger and sadness (p < .01), than were the mothers of the depressed no treatment group. Depressed mothers without treatment were more inaccurate (for example, sadness interpreted as anger). CONCLUSIONS: Psychotherapy may contribute to the depressed mother's achievement of accuracy in speaking with her child about emotions. The depressed mother whose depressive illness goes untreated is more inclined to be inaccurate and may pass these inclinations on to her child. The generality of the psychotherapy variable makes these findings preliminary.
Subject(s)
Child of Impaired Parents/psychology , Depressive Disorder/therapy , Emotions , Mother-Child Relations , Mothers/psychology , Psychotherapy , Verbal Behavior , Adult , Child, Preschool , Communication , Depressive Disorder/psychology , Female , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Middle Aged , Personality Assessment , Personality DevelopmentABSTRACT
Young children's sensitivity and responsiveness to mothers' needs were investigated under conditions of high and low parenting risk (depressed and nondepressed mothers, SADS-L). Child characteristics of gender, affect, and impulse control problems and the mother-child attachment relationship were examined as they related to children's caring actions. Children's caring behavior was observed in an experimental situation in which their mothers simulated sadness and in a naturalistic setting. Attachment alone and child's problems alone were not predictors, and maternal diagnosis alone was not a strong predictor. Girls were significantly more caring than boys. Severe maternal depression was necessary to bring out high levels of responding in boys. Highest frequencies of caring were from children with severely depressed mothers, problems of affect regulation, and secure attachment. The importance of recognizing interacting influences and diverse underlying processes in the development of children's caring behavior is discussed.
Subject(s)
Child Behavior , Depressive Disorder/psychology , Mothers/psychology , Child Development , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Mother-Child Relations , Object Attachment , Sex FactorsABSTRACT
Genetic change as well as continuity was investigated within the domains of temperament, emotion, and cognition/language for 200 pairs of twins assessed at 14 and 20 months of age in the laboratory and home. The second year of life is marked by change rather than continuity: correlations from 14 to 20 months averaged about .30 for observational measures of temperament and emotion, about .40 for language measures, and about .50 for mental development. 2 types of genetic change were examined: changes in the magnitude of genetic influence (heritability) and genetic contributions to change from 14 to 20 months. In general, heritability estimates were similar at 14 and 20 months. Evidence for genetic influence on change from 14 to 20 months emerged for several measures, implying that heritability cannot be equated with stability. Analyses of continuity indicated that genetic factors are largely responsible for continuity from 14 to 20 months.
Subject(s)
Child Development , Genotype , Personality Development , Twins/genetics , Colorado , Emotions , Female , Humans , Individuality , Infant , Language Development , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Phenotype , Social Environment , Temperament , Twins/psychology , Twins, Dizygotic/genetics , Twins, Dizygotic/psychology , Twins, Monozygotic/genetics , Twins, Monozygotic/psychologyABSTRACT
200 pairs of twins were assessed at 14 months of age in the laboratory and home. Measures were obtained of temperament, emotion, and cognition/language. Comparisons between identical and fraternal twin correlations suggest that individual differences are due in part to heritable influences. For temperament, genetic influence was significant for behavioral observations of inhibition to the unfamiliar, tester ratings of activity, and parental ratings of temperament. For emotion, significant genetic influence was found for empathy and parental ratings of negative emotion. The estimate of heritability for parental report of expression of negative emotions was relatively high, whereas that for expression of positive emotions was low, a finding consistent with previous research. For cognition and language, genetic influence was significant for behavioral indices of spatial memory, categorization, and word comprehension. Shared rearing environment appears influential for parental reports of language and for positive emotions, but not for other measures of emotion or for temperament.
Subject(s)
Cognition , Emotions , Temperament , Twins/genetics , Empathy , Environment , Family , Female , Humans , Infant , Language , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Twins/classification , Videotape RecordingABSTRACT
Forty five-year-olds were interviewed about conflict with peers, based on a simulated dispute between two glove puppets. Recommendations about tactics to be used in resolving conflicts were affected by the child's gender and experience of being cared for by a depressed mother. In particular, the daughters of depressed women were less likely than other children to recommend aggressive solutions to peer conflict; in contrast, the sons of depressed women were more likely than others to advocate aggression. Girls in general recommended more socialized tactics than boys did.
Subject(s)
Child Behavior/psychology , Depressive Disorder/psychology , Interpersonal Relations , Social Behavior , Aggression/psychology , Child Development , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Interviews as Topic , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Maternal Behavior , Mother-Child Relations , Peer Group , Sex Factors , SocializationABSTRACT
Although it has been shown that toddlers express distress when personal or physical events violate their expectations, there has been little detailed examination of their emotional reactions to such events. In this study, 45 2-year-olds were observed during 2 mishaps: a doll breaking and juice spilling. Their emotional reactions and their attempts to fix the mishap were coded. 2 components to their reactions to mishaps were found: one of tension and frustration, and another of concerned reparation. Mishaps elicited more negative emotions in toddlers than free play, and most toddlers attempted to correct the mishap. Children's styles of emotional response to mishaps may be related to maternal mental health. Symptoms of depression and anxiety in mothers were related to a suppression of tension and frustration in their offspring. Maternal acting out symptoms were not related to toddlers' reactions to mishaps. The findings are discussed in terms of the role of emotion in the formation of individual differences in sociomoral functioning and factors contributing to early differences.
Subject(s)
Child Behavior , Emotions , Maternal Behavior , Mother-Child Relations , Age Factors , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , MaleABSTRACT
Patterns of developmental change and individual differences in social competence were examined in children of depressed and psychiatrically well mothers, during the toddler-to-late-preschool period. Forty-one children were observed in peer interaction at ages two and five under semi-naturalistic laboratory conditions intended to elicit a range of emotions and social skills. Social competence increased with age, but patterns of developmental change were moderated by maternal diagnosis. Low levels of individual stability were identified in children's social competence.
Subject(s)
Depressive Disorder/psychology , Interpersonal Relations , Mothers/psychology , Peer Group , Social Behavior , Adult , Age Factors , Child Development , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Male , Mother-Child Relations , Sex FactorsABSTRACT
43 children were observed in play with "best available friends" at 2 and again at 5 years of age. An arousing stimulus, an angry interaction between adults, was introduced during play sessions to increase the likelihood of elicitation of aggressive patterns. Dimensions of physical aggression at age 2 (e.g., object-related aggression, bodily aggression) predicted dimensions of children's physical aggression at age 5. However, substantial sex differences in the stability of aggression were found. Among boys, the disposition to engage in physical aggression was highly stable, with correlations ranging as high as r = .76. Certain dimensions of physical aggression at age 2 were also positively associated with verbal aggression at age 5. Fewer and more modest correlations were found among girls. The frequency of aggression, particularly bodily aggression (e.g., hitting, pushing), initiations of aggression, and the average length of aggression episodes, decreased between 2 and 5 years of age. These results indicate that relative aggressiveness tends to remain stable despite declines in the frequency of aggressive behavior between 2 and 5 years of age.
Subject(s)
Aggression/psychology , Child Development , Peer Group , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Individuality , Interpersonal Relations , Male , Play and Playthings , Sex Factors , Verbal BehaviorABSTRACT
Seven male children who each had a manic-depressive parent (five alos had a parent with unipolar depression) and 12 control children were studied. The proband children had shown a range of adjustment problems as infants and toddlers. Four years later, they continued to have substantial behavior problems, including ones that could be classified as DSM-III psychiatric diagnoses. On the basis of psychiatric interviews and psychological assessments, the proband children received more DSM-III diagnoses than the control children. Proband children reported internalizing symptoms; this pattern was corroborated by their mothers, who also characterized these children as showing antisocial behavior patterns.
Subject(s)
Adjustment Disorders/diagnosis , Bipolar Disorder/genetics , Child Behavior Disorders/diagnosis , Adolescent , Adult , Antisocial Personality Disorder/diagnosis , Child , Child, Preschool , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Male , Middle AgedSubject(s)
Guilt , Personality Development , Child , Child Development , Child Rearing/ethnology , Child, Preschool , Female , Humans , Learning , Male , Models, Psychological , Parent-Child Relations , Psychoanalytic Theory , Psychological Theory , SocializationABSTRACT
Habitual sugar consumption and behavior following challenge by sugar and aspartame were studied in 30 preschool boys. The 18 subjects whose parents considered them sugar reactive had more disruptive behavior problems at baseline than the other 12 subjects. Habitual sugar consumption correlated only with duration of aggression against property in alleged responders. Double-blind crossover challenges with aspartame, saccharin, sucrose, and glucose produced no significant effect on aggression or observers' ratings of behavior. Lower actometer counts followed the trials of aspartame, but the difference was not apparent to observers. It is unlikely that sugar and aspartame are clinically significant causes of disruptive behavior.
Subject(s)
Aggression/drug effects , Aspartame/pharmacology , Child Behavior Disorders/chemically induced , Child Behavior/drug effects , Dietary Carbohydrates/pharmacology , Dipeptides/pharmacology , Aspartame/adverse effects , Child, Preschool , Dietary Carbohydrates/adverse effects , Glucose/adverse effects , Glucose/pharmacology , Humans , Male , Motor Activity/drug effects , Saccharin/adverse effects , Saccharin/pharmacology , Sucrose/adverse effects , Sucrose/pharmacologyABSTRACT
This is an exploratory study of the emotional and social functioning of young children with a manic-depressive parent. Seminaturalistic observations and experimental manipulations of the affective environment were used to assess 2-year-old children's regulation of emotion, as well as their aggression, altruism, and affiliative interactions. Children with a bipolar parent sometimes showed heightened distress and preoccupation with the conflicts and suffering of others, especially disturbances in adults. These children had difficulty in maintaining friendly social interactions, in sharing, and in helping their playmates. They also had difficulty modulating hostile impulses; they showed more maladaptive patterns of aggression toward peers and adults. These interpersonal and emotional problems of offspring of manic-depressives were often similar to those problems of manic-depressives that have been implicated in the clinical literature as possibly associated with the transmission of the disorder. This apparent congruence of findings obtained from different disciplines employing very different research strategies and studying people of different ages, attests to the utility of an explicit interdisciplinary approach in the area of developmental psychopathology.
