The novel compound PBT434 prevents iron mediated neurodegeneration and alpha-synuclein toxicity in multiple models of Parkinson's disease.

Elevated iron in the SNpc may play a key role in Parkinson's disease (PD) neurodegeneration since drug candidates with high iron affinity rescue PD animal models, and one candidate, deferirpone, has shown efficacy recently in a phase two clinical trial. However, strong iron chelators may perturb essential iron metabolism, and it is not yet known whether the damage associated with iron is mediated by a tightly bound (eg ferritin) or lower-affinity, labile, iron pool. Here we report the preclinical characterization of PBT434, a novel quinazolinone compound bearing a moderate affinity metal-binding motif, which is in development for Parkinsonian conditions. In vitro, PBT434 was far less potent than deferiprone or deferoxamine at lowering cellular iron levels, yet was found to inhibit iron-mediated redox activity and iron-mediated aggregation of α-synuclein, a protein that aggregates in the neuropathology. In vivo, PBT434 did not deplete tissue iron stores in normal rodents, yet prevented loss of substantia nigra pars compacta neurons (SNpc), lowered nigral α-synuclein accumulation, and rescued motor performance in mice exposed to the Parkinsonian toxins 6-OHDA and MPTP, and in a transgenic animal model (hA53T α-synuclein) of PD. These improvements were associated with reduced markers of oxidative damage, and increased levels of ferroportin (an iron exporter) and DJ-1. We conclude that compounds designed to target a pool of pathological iron that is not held in high-affinity complexes in the tissue can maintain the survival of SNpc neurons and could be disease-modifying in PD.

Copper Exchange and Redox Activity of a Prototypical 8-Hydroxyquinoline: Implications for Therapeutic Chelation.

The N-truncated ß-amyloid (Aß) isoform Aß4-x is known to bind Cu(2+) via a redox-silent ATCUN motif with a conditional Kd = 30 fM at pH 7.4. This study characterizes the Cu(2+) interactions and redox activity of Aßx-16 (x = 1, 4) and 2-[(dimethylamino)-methyl-8-hydroxyquinoline, a terdentate 8-hydroxyquinoline (8HQ) with a conditional Kd(CuL) = 35 pM at pH 7.4. Metal transfer between Cu(Aß1-16), CuL, CuL2, and ternary CuL(NIm(Aß)) was rapid, while the corresponding equilibrium between L and Aß4-16 occurred slowly via a metastable CuL(NIm(Aß)) intermediate. Both CuL and CuL2 were redox-silent in the presence of ascorbate, but a CuL(NIm) complex can generate reactive oxygen species. Because the NIm(Aß) ligand will be readily exchangeable with NIm ligands of ubiquitous protein His side chains in vivo, this class of 8HQ ligand could transfer Cu(2+) from inert Cu(Aß4-x) to redox-active CuL(NIm). These findings have implications for the use of terdentate 8HQs as therapeutic chelators to treat neurodegenerative disease.

On the ability of CuAß1-x peptides to form ternary complexes: Neurotransmitter glutamate is a competitor while not a ternary partner.

In the light of conflicting reports on the ability of copper(II) complexes of amyloid beta (Aß) peptides to form ternary complexes with small molecules co-present in the biological milieu, we performed a study of coordination equilibria in the system containing Cu(II) ions, the Aß1-16 peptide, glutamic acid and 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (2-[4-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazin-1-yl]ethanesulfonic acid, HEPES) buffer. Using potentiometry, isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), UV-visible spectroscopy and EPR, we concluded that glutamic acid was not able to form such a ternary complex, but can efficiently compete for the Cu(II) ion with the Aß peptide at Glu concentrations relevant for the synaptic cleft. We also found that the literature constants for Cu(II) complexes with Glu were overestimated, but this effect was partially compensated by the formation of a ternary Cu(Glu)(HEPES) complex. Our results indicate that small molecules co-present with Cu(II) ions and Aß peptides in the synaptic cleft are not very likely to enhance Cu(II)/Aß interactions, but instead should be considered as a Cu(II) buffering system that may help prevent these interactions and participate in Cu(II) clearance from the synaptic cleft.

The impact of synthetic analogs of histidine on copper(II) and nickel(II) coordination properties to an albumin-like peptide. Possible leads towards new metallodrugs.

The purpose of our research was to obtain peptidomimetics possessing Cu(II) and Ni(II) binding properties, which would be useful for biomedical applications. In this context we used potentiometry, UV-VIS and CD spectroscopies to characterize the Cu(II) and Ni(II) binding properties of pentapeptide analogs of the N-terminal sequence of histatin 5. The peptides investigated had a general sequence DSXAK-am (am stands for C-terminal amide), with X including His and its three synthetic analogs, (4-thiazolyl)-L-alanine (1), (2-pyridyl)-L-alanine (2), and (pyrazol-1-yl)-L-alanine (3). The heterocyclic nitrogens present in these analogs were significantly more acidic than that of the His imidazole. We found that DSXAK-am peptides were able to bind Cu(II) and Ni(II) and form 4N complexes in a cooperative fashion, with similar affinities. These results indicate that acidic heterocyclic amino acids provide a viable alternative for histidine in peptidomimetics designed for metal ion binding.

Sequence-specific Cu(II)-dependent peptide bond hydrolysis: similarities and differences with the Ni(II)-dependent reaction.

Potentiometry and UV-vis and circular dichroism spectroscopies were applied to characterize Cu(II) coordination to the Ac-GASRHWKFL-NH2 peptide. Using HPLC and ESI-MS, we demonstrated that Cu(II) ions cause selective hydrolysis of the Ala-Ser peptide bond in this peptide and characterized the pH and temperature dependence of the reaction. We found that Cu(II)-dependent hydrolysis occurs solely in 4N complexes, in which the equatorial coordination positions of the Cu(II) ion are saturated by peptide donor atoms, namely, the pyridine-like nitrogen of the His imidazole ring and three preceding peptide bond nitrogens. Analysis of the reaction products led to the conclusion that Cu(II)-dependent hydrolysis proceeds according to the mechanism demonstrated previously for Ni(II) ions (Kopera, E.; Krezel, A.; Protas, A. M.; Belczyk, A.; Bonna, A.; Wyslouch-Cieszynska, A.; Poznanski, J.; Bal, W. Inorg. Chem. 2010, 49, 6636-6645). However, the pseudo-first-order reaction rate found for Cu(II) is, on average, 100 times lower than that for Ni(II) ions. The greater ability of Cu(II) ions to form 4N complexes at lower pH partially compensates for this difference in rates, resulting in similar hydrolytic activities for the two ions around pH 7.

Cu(II) complex formation by ACES buffer.

ACES (N-(2-Acetamido)-2-aminoethanesulfonic acid), a popular Good's buffer, binds Cu(II) ions with a moderate affinity. Although this interaction was the subject of previous studies, no consensus in the literature was found. We used potentiometry to establish binding constants, and controlled the potentiometric model selection and binding constant calculations by UV-vis spectroscopy. As a result, we obtained a consistent set of complex stoichiometries and binding constants in this system, which contains Cu(2+), CuL(+), CuL2, CuH-1L2(-1) and CuH(-)2L2(-2) complexes. The negative indexes at H atoms in these formulae denote the Cu(II) assisted deprotonation of the amide nitrogen present in the ACES molecule. The affinity of ACES for Cu(II) strongly depends on the concentration and ACES:Cu(II) ratio, reaching submicromolar apparent affinities at ratios higher than 100. These results will enable more accurate determinations of biologically relevant stability constants of Cu(II) complexes using ACES buffer.

Mixed ligand Cu2+ complexes of a model therapeutic with Alzheimer's amyloid-ß peptide and monoamine neurotransmitters.

8-Hydroxyquinolines (8HQ) have found widespread application in chemistry and biology due to their ability to complex a range of transition metal ions. The family of 2-substituted 8HQs has been proposed for use in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Most notably, the therapeutic PBT2 (Prana Biotechnology Ltd.) has been shown to act as an efficient metal chaperone, disaggregate metal-enriched amyloid plaques comprised of the Aß peptide, inhibit Cu/Aß redox chemistry, and reverse the AD phenotype in transgenic animal models. Yet surprisingly little is known about the molecular interactions at play. In this study, we show that the homologous ligand 2-[(dimethylamino)methyl]-8-hydroxyquinoline (HL) forms a CuL complex with a conditional (apparent) dissociation constant of 0.33 nM at pH 6.9 and is capable of forming ternary Cu(2+) complexes with neurotransmitters including histamine (HA), glutamic acid (Glu), and glycine (Gly), with glutathione disulfide (GSSG), and with histidine (His) side chains of proteins and peptides including the Aß peptide. Our findings suggest a molecular basis for the strong metal chaperone activity of PBT2, its ability to attenuate Cu(2+)/Aß interactions, and its potential to promote neuroprotective and neuroregenerative effects.

Selective control of Cu(II) complex stability in histidine peptides by ß-alanine.

The cooperativity of formation of 5-membered and 6-membered chelate rings is the driving force for specificity and selectivity in Cu(II) peptidic complexes. α-Amino acids enable the formation of 5-membered rings, while a 6-membered ring is provided by the coordination of the His side chain imidazole. Introduction of ß-alanine is another way of creating a 6-membered ring in the Cu(II) complex. The potentiometric and spectroscopic (UV-vis and CD) study of Cu(II) complexation by a series of four peptides, AAH-am, ABH-am, BAH-am, and BBH-am (where B stands for ß-alanine, and -am for C-terminal amide) revealed a very strong effect of the sizes of individual rings, with the order of complex stability AAH-am (5,5,6)>BAH-am (6,5,6)>ABH-am (5,6,6)≫BBH-am (6,6,6). The stabilities of ABH-am and BAH-am complexes are intermediate between those of strong His-3 peptides but these complexes are still able to saturate the coordination sphere of the Cu(II) ion at neutral pH. This fact opens up new possibilities in engineering specific peptide-based chelates.