Knowledge, beliefs, and practices in relation to malaria transmission and vector control in Guatemala.

As part of an effort to involve community members in malaria control activities, we studied knowledge, beliefs, and practices of residents of both the Pacific coastal plain and northeastern Guatemala related to malaria transmission and Anopheles albimanus control. Most residents recognized the role of mosquitoes in malaria transmission, but few knew how mosquitoes acquired their infections or understood the risk of having an untreated person in their midst. If this were more widely known, residents might put greater pressure on infected patients to seek timely and appropriate antimalarial treatment. Seventy-three percent of families owned one or more bed nets; however, even though most informants believed that bed nets help protect against malaria, the major reason for using them was to prevent nuisance mosquito bites. It is concluded that efforts should be made to promote bed net use by seeking ways to make them more affordable and by emphasizing their effectiveness as a barrier to nuisance mosquitoes. Although residents have a very positive opinion of the National Malaria Service spray teams, it is proposed that cooperation might be improved if malaria workers would emphasize the fact that house spraying reduces the numbers of nuisance mosquitoes and other pest insects, rather than focusing solely on malaria prevention, which most informants believed was less important. This study emphasizes the importance of understanding community beliefs and practices when planning or evaluating vector control activities.

Community participation in malaria surveillance and treatment. III. An evaluation of modifications in the Volunteer Collaborator Network of Guatemala.

In most rural areas of Latin America, malaria surveillance and treatment is carried out by a network of unpaid village malaria workers, known as Volunteer Collaborators, who are trained and supervised by the National Malaria Service. To identify ways in which the performance of these volunteer workers could be improved and to test changes that would make the Volunteer Collaborator Networks (VCNs) a more attractive model for community participation in malaria case detection and treatment in other regions, we tested a series of modifications in the VCN of Guatemala. These modifications included improved methods for selecting, supervising, and evaluating the volunteer workers and for collecting blood smears and reporting results, and the use of volunteer workers, known as Volunteer Medicators, who administered presumptive antimalarial therapy without taking a blood smear. A cost-effectiveness analysis of the modified VCN was also carried out. Two years after the modifications were introduced, Volunteer Collaborators identified nearly twice as high a percentage (33% versus 17%) of patients with suspected malaria in their villages. Delays in examining blood smears were reduced from 23 days to 11 days and delays from blood smear examination to curative treatment were reduced from 21 days to 7 days. The Volunteer Medicators identified and treated only a slightly higher percentage of patients than the Volunteer Collaborators (36% versus 33%). However, the cost of maintaining a network of Volunteer Medicators ($0.61 per patient treated) was much lower than the traditional VCN ($2.45) or the modified VCN ($1.85). Thus, with a few, simple and relatively inexpensive modifications, the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of Volunteer Collaborators can be markedly improved. Additionally, the VCN can be modified to make it a more suitable model for community-based malaria control and surveillance networks in other malarious areas of the world, which differ in terms of their level of endemicity, the goals of the malaria program, or the available health care infrastructure.

Permethrin-impregnated bed nets for malaria control in northern Guatemala: epidemiologic impact and community acceptance.

Permethrin-impregnated bed nets were evaluated as a control measure for malaria in northern Guatemala. Twelve hundred forty participants were allocated to one of three experimental groups (impregnated bed nets [IBN], untreated bed nets [UBN], and controls) and followed up for a period of 13 months. The incidence density of malaria was significantly lower in both IBN (86 cases/1,000 person-years) and UBN groups (106/1,000) compared with that in controls (200/1,000). No difference in malaria incidence was noted between the IBN and UBN groups. Complaints of fever and chills were less frequent in the IBN group compared with controls. The participants were enthusiastic about the nets, which they saw as a means for avoiding nuisance insects more than for preventing malaria. Most (85%) wanted to wash their nets every 4-12 weeks, a practice known to shorten the duration of residual insecticide action. Larger studies are needed to determine whether or not impregnated bed nets offer an advantage over untreated nets in this setting.

Community participation in malaria surveillance and treatment. II. Evaluation of the volunteer collaborator Network of Guatemala.

To evaluate the effectiveness of the Volunteer Collaborator Network (VCN) of Latin America as a community-based malaria case detection and treatment system, we conducted a study of the VCN of Guatemala. Volunteer Collaborators took 72.6% of all blood smears and identified 81.3% of all malaria cases reported by the Guatemalan National Malaria Service. The average volunteer treated 5.8 patients per month (range 0-32.8). In contrast, passive case detection (PCD) posts in government hospitals and health centers treated an average of 12.5 patients per month (range 0.5-91.4). The slide positivity rate of blood smears taken by Volunteer Collaborators was 16.2% compared with 9.7% for PCD posts in health centers and 10.3% for malaria workers during active case detection. The average delay between the date a blood smear was taken and examined ranged from 18.1 days on the Pacific coastal plain to 26.3 days in the less accessible northern region of the country. An additional 14.5 to 47.6 days elapsed before the radical treatments were initiated in these two regions. Seventy percent of the patients completed their radical treatments. In a survey conducted on the Pacific coastal plain of Guatemala, of 1,021 patients with chills and/or fever who believed they had malaria, 20.0% had visited a Volunteer Collaborator and 4.9% were treated at a government health center. Thus, the PCD network detected only 25% of all patients with symptoms suggestive of malaria. Most of the remaining patients treated themselves with antimalarial medications purchased in stores and pharmacies, but less than 15% of these patients used adequate courses of therapy. Furthermore, the rate of detection of symptomatic patients with malaria varied considerably from one community to another. Thus, data from the VCN are probably most useful when groups of communities or geographic areas are stratified for malaria control activities because at this level, variations between individual Volunteer Collaborator posts will be minimized. In spite of these problems, the VCN remains an excellent source of epidemiologic data for malaria control programs and the most practical means available for providing timely, appropriate antimalarial therapy to febrile patients in rural areas.

Use of illiterate volunteer workers for malaria case detection and treatment.

We evaluated the use of illiterate community volunteers for malaria case detection and treatment in Guatemala. Volunteer workers, known as Volunteer Medicators, were selected by members of their communities and were trained and supervised by National Malaria Service (NMS) staff. Their responsibilities included recording basic demographic data and administering a three-day course of chloroquine (25 mg kg-1) to all febrile patients who visited their homes. Patient information was recorded on a special form which consisted of stick-figure drawings. During a one-year evaluation period, no differences were noted between literate and illiterate Volunteer Medicators with respect to the length of time required for their training or supervision, the average number of patients they treated per month, the frequency of errors in recording data or administering medication, or their acceptance by the community residents.