ABSTRACT
The abuse of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), a psychedelic drug, can lead to a variety of disorders in neural system, including the death of retinal neural cells. MDMA at lower doses does not cause obvious cytotoxicity to photoreceptor cells, indicating potential indirect mechanisms which have not yet been elucidated. This study investigated the effect of MDMA at nontoxic concentration on macrophage activation state and its resultant toxicity to photoreceptor cells. Using a co-culture system, cytotoxicity was caused by MDMA on 661W cells after co-culturing with RAW264.7 macrophage. Results showed that MDMA induced the macrophages to M1 polarization, releasing more pro-inflammatory cytokines, upregulating the M1-related gene and protein expression. The phenotype, secretion pattern, and cytotoxicity of the macrophages treated by MDMA are comparable to those of the ones stimulated by IFNγ and LPS. Our study demonstrated that MDMA promoted macrophage polarization to M1 and induced inflammatory response, providing the scientific rationale for the photoreceptor cell damage caused by the MDMA abuse.
Subject(s)
Hallucinogens/toxicity , Macrophages/drug effects , N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine/toxicity , Animals , Cell Line, Tumor , Cell Survival/drug effects , Coculture Techniques , Cytochromes c/metabolism , Cytokines/genetics , Cytokines/metabolism , DNA Damage , Macrophages/physiology , Membrane Potential, Mitochondrial/drug effects , Mice , RAW 264.7 Cells , Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolismABSTRACT
AIM: To investigate the expressions of type I collagen, α2 integrin and ß1 integrin in the posterior sclera of guinea pigs with defocus myopia and whether basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) injection inhibits the formation and development of myopia by upregulating the expression of type I collagen, α2 integrin and ß1 integrin. METHODS: After 14 days of treatment, the refractive state and axial length were measured and the levels of type I collagen, α2 integrin and ß1 integrin were assayed in the posterior sclerae of groups of guinea pigs that wore a monocular -7D polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) lens or had -7D lens wear followed by the peribulbar injection of Phosphate Buffer Solution (PBS) or bFGF. The untreated fellow eye served as a control. Guinea pigs with no treatment served as normal group. RESULTS: The results showed that 14 days of monocular defocus increased axial eye length and refraction, while bFGF delivery inhibited them markedly. Further, it was also found that the monocular -7D lens could decrease the levels of type I collagen, α2 integrin and ß1 integrin expressions, while, unlike PBS, bFGF increased them significantly in comparison to contralateral control eyes and normal eyes. CONCLUSION: bFGF can prevent the formation and development of defocus myopia by upregulating the expressions of type I collagen, α2 integrin and ß1 integrin. Taken together, our results demonstrate that bFGF promotes sclera remodeling to prevent myopia in guinea pigs.
ABSTRACT
We describe a new stromata-producing Neotyphodium species symbiotic with clonal Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. Stromata on the grass, 47.5-186 mm long, occurred frequently, but neither perithecium nor mature ascus was observed. Morphology of fungal isolates obtained from symptomatic and asymptomatic tillers were identical to each other and similar to those of epichloë endophytes. In phylogenetic analysis all selected five fungal isolates clustered into a significantly distinct clade based on sequences of beta-tubulin gene (tubB) introns and translation elongation factor 1-alpha gene (tefA) introns with bootstrap values of 99%, supporting erection of a new species. Concerning the production of extremely long stromata on the host plants and absence of sexual spores, we propose the name Neotyphodium stromatolongum Y. Ji, L. Zhan et Z. Wang, sp. nov.
