Risk factors for surgical site infection after surgical treatment of closed distal radial fractures.

We assessed operatively treated closed distal radial fractures to identify independent risk factors for surgical site infection after treatment. A retrospective review was carried out of 531 operatively treated closed distal radial fractures over a 5-year period. Multiple logistic regression was performed with infection as the dependent variable, using a stepwise regression procedure to select variables to construct the final model. In total, 19 (3.6%) fractures were complicated by postoperative surgical site infection. Uncontrolled diabetes with HbA1c >7, the presence of external fixation or external Kirschner wires, and tobacco use were significant independent predictors of infection. Age and time in the operating room were also statistically significant predictors but deemed to be not clinically meaningful.Level of evidence: IV.

Psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on breast cancer patients.

PURPOSE: The COVID-19 pandemic uniquely impacted patients with breast cancer as mastectomies were allowed to proceed, yet breast reconstruction surgeries were halted. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the rates of breast reconstruction and patients' well-being. METHODS: A chart review included all patients who underwent mastectomy from December 2019 to September 2021. Patients were contacted by a member of the research team and asked to participate in a COVID-19-specific survey and to complete the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Patients were then grouped into "surge" or "nonsurge" groups based on the date of mastectomy. RESULTS: Two hundred and fifty-nine patients were included in this study. During the study period, 42% (n = 111) of the patients underwent breast reconstruction. The "surge" group included 106 patients whereas the "nonsurge" group included 153 patients. Fewer patients began breast reconstruction during the surge period compared with the nonsurge period (34.0% vs. 49.0%, p = 0.017). Eighty-six patients participated in the COVID-19 survey. Forty-one percent (n = 35) of the patients felt that their care was disrupted because of COVID-19. Eighty-three patients completed the HADS survey. Overall, 16.8% and 15.7% of the respondents fell into the moderate to severe ranges for both anxiety and depression scales, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with breast cancer have faced increased difficulties with access to breast reconstruction throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Our institution demonstrated decreased rates of breast reconstruction and an increase in anxiety and depression. The positive benefits of breast reconstruction cannot be overlooked when determining resource allocation in the future.

Rating the Rater: A Technique for Minimizing Leniency Bias in Residency Applications.

Each program in the highly competitive match for a surgical residency needs a way to review applicants effectively. Often this task is undertaken by individual faculty members, reviewing an applicant's file and assigning a score. Despite being asked to rate on a standardized scale, our program found that ratings of the same applicants varied dramatically, with certain faculty consistently scoring higher or lower than others. This is termed leniency bias, or the Hawk-Dove effect, and can affect who is invited to interview depending on which faculty are assigned to review an applicant's file. Methods: A technique to minimize leniency bias was developed and applied to this year's 222 applicants for our plastic surgery residency. The effect of the technique was evaluated by comparing variance between ratings of the same applicants by different faculty before and after our technique. Results: The median variance of ratings of the same applicants reduced from 0.68 before correction to 0.18 after correction, demonstrating better agreement between raters of the applicants' scores after our technique had been applied. This year, applying our technique affected whether or not 16 applicants (36% of interviewees) were invited for interview, including one applicant who matched to our program but who otherwise would not have been offered an interview. Conclusions: We present a simple but effective technique to minimize the leniency bias between raters of residency applicants. Our experience with this technique is presented together with instructions and Excel formulae for other programs to use.

Static and Dynamic Stabilization of the Shoulder After Total Scapulectomy in an Electric Burn Patient.

ABSTRACT: An otherwise healthy 49-year-old man experienced a high-voltage electrical injury to the left shoulder resulting in total scapulectomy, partial calviculectomy, and a substantial soft tissue defect. The majority of the muscles around his shoulder were debrided because of necrosis, with only the pectoralis and latissimus dorsi muscles remaining attached to the humerus. Surprisingly, the patient's brachial plexus remained intact, and his left elbow, wrist, and hand function were preserved. A novel combination of 3 static and dynamic suspension techniques were used to stabilize his shoulder and prevent traction injury to the brachial plexus. Postoperative follow-up at 1 year demonstrated excellent stability of his reconstructed shoulder, which allowed him to ambulate independently and return to employment.

The Role of Reconstruction on Desmoid Tumor Recurrence: A Systematic Review and Technical Considerations.

BACKGROUND: Desmoid tumors occur throughout the body, presenting as aggressive, locally invasive lesions that can impede quality of life. Many controversies remain regarding the optimal surgical treatment of desmoid. This article presents a systematic review and meta-analysis on surgical management, focusing on risk of recurrence and the utility of reconstruction within this unique patient population. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted to search for articles. The clinical course of patients diagnosed with desmoid tumors and treated by our institution's multidisciplinary team was retrospectively reviewed over a 13-year period. Meta-analysis study findings were compared with our cohort. RESULTS: From the systematic review, 10 studies with level of evidence III were found, which resulted in 981 patients. Twenty patients from our institution met the inclusion criteria for our study. In both our study cohort and the pooled results, recurrence was significantly higher in patients with positive microscopic margin after resection. In our study cohort, patients with recurrence had higher rates of positive margins compared with those without recurrence (83.3% vs 7.1%, P = 0.004), whereas the pooled study showed a difference of margin positivity of 50% vs 40% ( P = 0.01). No patients who underwent reconstruction in our study cohort had a recurrence during the study period. CONCLUSION: In both our cohort and pooled results, recurrence was significantly higher in patients with positive margins after initial resection. Reconstruction was not found to be a risk factor for recurrence. Reconstruction following desmoid tumor resection should be considered a viable option if a large and aggressive resection is required to obtain negative margins.

Breaking Barriers to Breast Reconstruction among Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Patients at a Large Safety-net Hospital.

Socioeconomic disparities remain prevalent among those who undergo breast reconstruction. At our institution, patients must meet certain criteria to become eligible for breast reconstruction. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of socioeconomic factors on breast reconstruction eligibility, enrollment, choice, and completion at our large safety-net institution. Methods: A retrospective chart review of patients who underwent partial or total mastectomy at a large safety-net hospital from 2016 to 2019 was completed. Surgical and demographic data were compared across varying socioeconomic factors. Results: A total of 645 patients were included in the study. More patients of a racial minority had government-based insurance than White patients (89% versus 81%; P = 0.01). Those with government-based insurance had higher average hemoglobin A1c values (6.26 versus 6.0; P = 0.03), proportion of American Society of Anesthesiologists scores greater than III (46% versus 40%; P = 0.01), and smokers (23% versus 9%; P = 0.02) than those with private insurance. Diabetic patients, patients with an American Society of Anesthesiologists greater than III, and active smokers were significantly less likely to receive a plastic surgery consult. Patients with government-based insurance underwent immediate tissue expander placement at mastectomy at rates lower than those with private insurance (57% versus 69%; P = 0.01). Conclusions: Barriers remain for socioeconomically disadvantaged patients to be eligible for, undergo, and complete breast reconstruction. Obesity, diabetes, smoking, and poor overall health were identified as the main barriers and were associated with racial minorities, government-based insurance, and lower incomes. Concerted effort through multidisciplinary teams is needed to maximize eligibility of socioeconomically disadvantaged breast cancer patients for reconstruction.

Know Thyself: Natural and Adapted Behavior Styles of General and Plastic Surgery Residents.

BACKGROUND: Resident miscommunication and fractured team dynamics are associated with decreased quality of patient care. Interventions to improve resident communication and team coordination include behavioral assessments, which promote leadership and communication skills. METHODS: In this retrospective review, general and plastic surgery residents voluntarily completed the DISC (dominance, influence, steadiness, and compliance) behavioral assessment. This validated tool is composed of four behavioral categories: dominance (D), influence (I), steadiness (S), and compliance (C). It is used to classify an individual's natural and adapted behavior styles. Results were anonymously collected and analyzed using the Pearson chi-square test. RESULTS: Of 94 surgery residents, 84 completed the survey (89 percent): 43 men and 41 women. Surgery residents combined had a significantly higher percentage of natural C's compared to the general population (23 percent versus 14 percent; p = 0.02). The majority of surgery residents adapted to C in the work environment (39 versus 36 percent; p = 0.85). There was a significant difference in male and female general surgery adapted D profiles (4 percent versus 23 percent; p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The pressure of accuracy in surgical residency attracts natural C individuals. Residents without a natural C behavioral profile tend to adapt to the C profile. The ability to recognize behavior traits is crucial in surgical residency. Developing a better understanding of one's own behavior will provide insight into personal risk factors for miscommunication and inefficient team dynamics.

Tissue Expander-Based Breast Reconstruction at a Major Safety-Net Hospital: Managing the Outsized Risk of Infection.

Background: Immediate tissue expander (TE) breast reconstruction is reported to have the highest rate of postoperative infection among reconstructive modalities. The risk of infection is higher among patients treated at safety-net hospitals. Objectives: The goal of this study was to identify significant contributing factors to the elevated infection risk at our major safety-net institution. Methods: A retrospective chart review was conducted on all TE-based reconstruction patients with a diagnosis of postoperative infection between 2015 and 2019. Preoperative, perioperative, and postoperative risk factors for infection were determined and compared across patient and procedure demographics. Results: Two hundred forty-three patients, for a total of 412 breast reconstructions, were included in our study. Significant preoperative selection factors were identified to contribute to the elevated risk of infection, including the following: older age, higher BMI, and diabetes. Significant intraoperative and postoperative contributing factors included greater mastectomy weight, larger TE's and intraoperative fill volume, and longer drain duration. Doxycycline treatment for infected patients resulted in a significantly higher rate of resolution. Conclusions: Safety-net hospital population patients undergoing TE breast reconstruction are at higher risk for postoperative infection. Personal and procedural risk factors are identified. Balancing the benefits of immediate breast reconstruction with TEs with the elevated risk of postoperative infection remains challenging. Implementation of more stringent eligibility criteria may help mitigate the risk of infection.

Treatment of Nonreplantable Total Thumb Amputation at the CMC Level Using Index Finger Pollicization.

BACKGROUND: Pollicization of the index finger is a rarely performed reconstructive option for patients with total thumb amputations with nonsalvageable carpometacarpal (CMC) joint and thenar muscles. Successful pollicization can provide basic grasp and pinch to help patients carry out activities of daily living. We present a retrospective review of 4 patients who underwent index finger pollicization for traumatic total thumb amputations. METHODS: A retrospective review of 4 cases of pollicization using an injured index finger for traumatic thumb amputation was performed. Patients available for follow-up were contacted for functional assessment. Outcomes including range of motion (ROM), grip strength, key pinch, 2-point discrimination, and Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand score were obtained. Functional thenar muscle and the CMC joint were absent in all cases. Injury mechanism was firework in 2 patients and crush in 2 patients. RESULTS: The time from injury to pollicization ranged from 8 days to 17 months. Follow-up time ranged from 10 weeks to 3 years. Three patients regularly used the pollicized thumb in activities of daily living such as writing. Tip pinch and lateral pinch along with grip strength were weak in all cases; the best recorded pinch strength was 24% and grip strength was 25% compared with the contralateral hand. The ROM of the pollicized thumb was limited. CONCLUSIONS: Index finger pollicization following total thumb amputation can be a viable last-resort option for patients. The pollicized digit acts as a sensate post and avoids further morbidity from the traumatized extremity.

Rodeo Thumb: To Replant or Not.

BACKGROUND: This study investigated patient-reported outcomes after surgical treatment of rodeo thumb amputation to guide clinical decision-making. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed for rodeo thumb amputations from 2009 to 2019. Patient-reported outcomes were collected and compared by injury level, age, and treatment. Two-sided t test was used to compare continuous variables, and Pearson chi-square test was used to compare categorical data. RESULTS: The study included 37 patients. Patients with interphalangeal injuries treated with replantation had Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand questionnaire scores similar to those treated with amputation (1 versus 8; p = 0.07). There was no significant difference in percentage of patients with similar or better roping ability after treatment (40 percent versus 79 percent; p = 0.26), and similar percentages were satisfied (80 percent versus 71 percent; p = 1.00). Patients with metacarpophalangeal injuries treated with replantation and those treated with amputation had similar questionnaire scores (7 versus 10; p = 0.47). Both groups had similar roping ability after treatment (67 percent versus 56 percent; p = 1.00), and there was no statistically significant difference in satisfaction (79 percent versus 44 percent; p = 0.34). Pediatric patients had questionnaire scores similar to those of adults (6 versus 8; p = 0.42). A significantly higher percentage of pediatric patients had similar roping ability following injury than adults (100 percent versus 54 percent; p = 0.02). Most patients in both groups were satisfied (89 percent versus 61 percent; p = 0.22). CONCLUSIONS: For both interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal injuries, patient-reported outcomes were similar regardless of treatment. Children were able to return to roping and perform at a similar or higher level at a greater rate than adults, but had similar questionnaire scores and satisfaction.

Global Pandemic and Plastic Surgery Residency Match: Can Social Media Fill the Void?

BACKGROUND: The type of content that influences plastic and reconstructive surgery (PRS) residency program selection and attracts applicants is continually changing and not clearly understood. Further, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a major yet undetermined impact on residency selection. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the type of PRS social media (SM) content that drives prospective applicants' interest in a residency program, and the degree of SM influence on applicants, especially in the context of COVID-19. METHODS: Prospective PRS residency applicants were surveyed anonymously. RESULTS: An average of 60% of respondents reported that PRS SM content influenced their perception of a program. Fifty-eight percent reported that resident lifestyle content made them more interested in a program. Separately, 32% reported that resident lifestyle content influenced them to rank a program higher. Seventy-two percent of respondents claimed SM content did not make them lose interest in a program. Rarely posting, outdated content, and lack of engagement were cited as factors for loss of interest in a program. A majority of respondents (53%) reported wanting to see more resident life and culture content on SM. Of the existing PRS SM content, respondents were most interested in resident lifestyle, followed by clinical and program-specific content. CONCLUSIONS: The COVID-19 pandemic amplified the importance of SM PRS residency selection. Resident lifestyle content was consistently indicated as more likely to make respondents gain interest in a program, rank a program higher, and as the most desired content. PRS programs will benefit from highlighting resident camaraderie, quality of life, hobbies, and lifestyle to attract applicants.

Risk of Pneumothorax With Internal Mammary Vessel Utilization in Autologous Breast Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Complications associated with autologous breast reconstruction are well reported in the literature. Regardless of the type of free flap harvested, the anastomosis is most commonly performed to the recipient internal mammary vessels. Although pneumothorax is a known possible complication of breast surgery, incidence of pneumothorax in breast reconstruction involving the use of the internal mammary vessels is rarely discussed. The aim of our study was to determine the incidence of pneumothorax in deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap breast reconstruction. METHODS: A single-institution review was performed examining the incidence of pneumothorax in cases of DIEP flap breast reconstruction with anastomosis to the internal mammary vessels over a 4-year period. Intraoperative irrigation was used to visually assess for evidence of pneumothorax during recipient vessel dissection and anastomosis. Anteroposterior chest radiographs were obtained on the first postoperative day to assess for pneumothorax. Additional variables analyzed included type of retractor used during recipient vessel dissection and history of radiation. RESULTS: A total of 180 patients underwent autologous DIEP breast reconstruction at our institution. The overall incidence of pneumothorax was 1.4 per 100 recipient vessel dissections and 2.2 per 100 patients undergoing breast reconstruction. There was a total of 4 cases of pneumothorax. Three were attributed to unknown causes, and 1 was due to direct injury to the parietal pleura via electrocautery. CONCLUSION: The use of the internal mammary artery and vein as recipient vessels continues to be the most common and reliable recipient for autologous breast reconstruction. Based on our data, pneumothorax does not seem to be a common complication of this procedure. If concern for iatrogenic injury to the pleura arises intraoperatively, we suggest the use of a saline bubble test to investigate the possible injury. Routine postoperative radiographs are not indicated unless the patient develops symptoms suggestive of pneumothorax.

Surgical Treatment of Upper Extremity Gunshot Injures: An Updated Review.

INTRODUCTION: Firearm morbidity and mortality have been increasing in recent years, and with this, the demand for medical personnel firearm injury treatment knowledge. Extremities contribute to a majority of firearm injuries, with these injuries being particularly complex because of neurovascular proximity within a confined space. Knowledge of firearm mechanism of injury and treatment management options is important for any trauma hand surgeon. Many factors play vital roles in the treatment of complex upper extremity (UE) gunshot wounds (GSWs). The aim of our review and case illustrations is to provide hand surgeons with an up-to-date guide for initial emergent management, soft tissue, bony, and nerve repair and reconstruction. PATIENT AND METHODS: A literature review was conducted in the current management of UE GSW injuries, and 2 specific patient case examples were included. High-energy versus low-energy GSWs were documented and compared, as well as containment injures. Management including soft tissue, bony, and nerve injuries was explored along with patient outcome. Based on these findings, guidelines for GSW management were purposed. CONCLUSION: Gunshot wounds of the UE encompass a group of highly heterogeneous injuries. High-energy wounds are more extensive, and concomitant injuries to bone, vessel, nerve, muscle, and soft tissue are common. Early treatment with adequate debridement, skeletal fixation, and soft tissue coverage is indicated for complex injuries, and antibiotic treatment in the pre-, peri-, and postoperative period is indicated for operative injuries. Soft tissue coverage options include the entire reconstructive ladder, with pattern of injury and considerations of wound characteristics dictating reconstructive choice. There are arguments to using either external or internal bony fixation techniques for bone fracture management, with choice tailored to the patient. For management of nerve injuries, we advocate earlier nerve repair and a shorter duration of observation before secondary reconstruction in selective cases. If transected nerve endings cannot be brought together, nerve autografts of shorter length are recommended to bridge nerve ending gaps. A significant number of patients with GSW fail to make necessary follow-up appointments, which adds to challenges in treatment.

Three-dimensional (3D) synthetic printing for the manufacture of non-biodegradable models, tools and implants used in surgery: a review of current methods.

The advent of three-dimensional (3D) printing in the 1980s ushered in a new era of manufacturing. Original 3D printers were large, expensive and difficult to operate, but recent advances in 3D printer technologies have drastically increased the accessibility of these machines such that individual surgical departments can now afford their own 3D printers. As adoption of 3D printing technology has increased within the medical industry so too has the number of 3D printable materials. Selection of the appropriate printer and material for a given application can be a daunting task for any clinician. This review seeks to describe the benefits and drawbacks of different 3D printing technologies and the materials used therein. Commercially available printers using fused deposition modelling or fused filament fabrication technology and relatively inexpensive thermoplastic materials have enabled rapid manufacture of anatomic models and intraoperative tools as well as implant prototyping. Titanium alloys remain the gold-standard material for various implants used in the fixation of craniofacial or extremity fractures, but polymers and ceramics are showing increasing promise for these types of applications. An understanding of these materials and their compatibility with various 3D printers is essential for application of this technology in a healthcare setting.

Comparing 3 Suture Techniques After Muscle Laceration Repair.

Background: Skeletal muscle lacerations are a relatively common injury. Compared with nonrepaired lacerations, surgically repaired muscle lacerations regenerate faster, develop less scar tissue, have a higher return to baseline strength, and have lower incidence of hematomas. Despite the benefits of repair, the optimal repair technique is still unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the biomechanical properties of common muscle repair techniques to determine the optimal repair. Methods: Forty-two fusiform porcine muscle specimens were dissected and used for this study. Three suture techniques were used for comparative analysis: Figure-eight, Mason Allen, and Perimeter. Each muscle was transected and then repaired using one of the 3 techniques. Fourteen muscle-tendon specimens were prepared for each group and tested for tensile failure using a material testing system. Biomechanical properties, including peak failure point and stiffness, were compared for differences between the suture groups by 1-way analysis of variance. The average time per repair technique was also recorded. Results: The Perimeter technique showed a statistically significant higher peak failure point than the Mason Allen technique (P = .03). Both the Figure-eight (P = .047) and Perimeter techniques (P < .001) were significantly stiffer than the Mason Allen technique. The repair time was comparable across all 3 techniques. Conclusions: The Figure-eight and Perimeter repairs were found to be similar in peak failure point and stiffness, whereas the Mason Allen technique showed significantly lower stiffness and peak failure point. The Figure-eight was the quickest repair to perform. The Figure-eight technique may be strongly considered for muscle laceration repairs due to its simplicity and efficiency.

Improving plastic surgery resident education and quality of care with outcomes feedback using the surgery report card: An initial experience.

BACKGROUND: The practice of tracking and analyzing surgical outcomes is essential to becoming better surgeons. However, this feedback system is largely absent in residency training programs. Thus, we developed a Surgery Report Card (SRC) for residents performing tissue expander (TE)-based breast reconstruction and report our initial experience with its implementation. METHODS: We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis for TE-based breast reconstructions and compared outcomes to our retrospective cohort. The primary outcome was overall complications. The SRC compares patient and complication statistics for resident-led teams to the meta-analysis. RESULTS: The meta-analysis included 12 studies, with 2093 patients (2982 breasts) that underwent TE-based reconstruction. The pooled complication rate was 26.9%; infection was most common (8.3%); failure rate was 5.9%. Our cohort included 144 patients (245 breasts) among 13 resident-led teams. Overall complication rate was 31.8%; infections were most frequent (17.6%) and failure rate was 7.3%. Our cohort had significantly higher BMIs (29.7 vs 25.4, p<0.0001) more diabetics (6.9% vs. 3.2%, p = 0.02), and more patients receiving adjuvant radiation therapy (41.4 vs 26.3%, p<0.0001). Every 3 months, residents receive a customized SRC of their cases, with the meta-analysis used as a benchmark. A survey demonstrated the SRC made residents reconsider surgical technique and more conscientious surgeons, and would like it implemented for other procedures during residency. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of our SRC for TE-based breast reconstruction establishes a baseline for surgical performance comparison for residents, demonstrates that residents can safely perform the procedure, and allows for critiquing of surgical techniques to improve patient care.

Achieving balance between resident autonomy and patient safety: Analysis of resident-led microvascular reconstruction outcomes at a microsurgical training center with an established microsurgical training pathway.

BACKGROUND: With advances in microsurgery, the published success rate of microsurgical reconstruction by experienced microsurgeons is greater than 95%. However, it is unknown whether the training residents can produce similar results. At our county hospital, residents perform and lead all aspects of microsurgical reconstruction, from raising the flap to performing microanastomoses. In this study, we retrospectively reviewed the outcomes of 156 consecutive microsurgical cases to determine the efficacy and safety of resident-led reconstructions at the county hospital. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of patients who underwent microsurgical reconstruction at the county hospital from 2016 to 2018. Demographic, surgical procedure, flap characteristics, resident levels, and complication data were collected. RESULTS: Of the 156 free tissue flaps performed, the most commonly performed reconstruction was for the breast (62.8%), followed by lower extremity (15.9%), upper extremity (10.6%), head and neck (8.8%), and genitalia (1.8%). The average procedure time was 525.1 ±â€¯149.2 min, and mean ischemia time for each flap was 69.8 ±â€¯42.2 min. Venous anastomoses were performed by PGY3 (0.96%), PGY4 (27.9%), PGY5 (18.3%), and PGY6 (47.1%), while the arterial anastomoses were performed by PGY4 (16.4%), PGY5 (11.0%), and PGY6 (69.2%). The average number of anastomosis attempts was 1.3, with a range of 1 to 6. The overall flap success rate was 95.5% with a takeback rate of 7.1%. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our analysis shows that resident-led reconstruction can achieve similar microsurgical success as that of published outcomes. We believe resident-led microsurgical reconstruction can be safely performed, with as-needed faculty assistance in high-risk and complicated cases, while allowing resident education and maturation of technical and decision-making skills.

The Basic Science of Dupuytren Disease.

Dupuytren disease is a fibroproliferative condition affecting the hands of millions of patients worldwide. The hypothesis of pathogenesis involves genetic factors and internal factors. Recent genome-wide association studies have provided much needed evidence for the long-held belief of a strong genetic component to the pathogenesis of Dupuytren disease. Specifically, abnormal activation of the Wnt signaling pathway plays an important role. Regarding internal factors, microvascular angiopathy and ischemia have been shown to lead to activation of transforming growth factor-ß1 and proliferation of myofibroblasts.

Pain and Hand Function.

Pain is a unique somatosensory perception that can dramatically affect our ability to function. It is also a necessary perception, without which we would do irreparable damage to ourselves. In this article, the authors assess the impact of pain on function of the hand. Pain can be categorized into acute pain, chronic pain, and neuropathic pain. Hand function and objective measurements of hand function are analyzed as well as the impact of different types of pain on each of these areas.