Origin of Fluorescence from Boranils in the Crystalline Phase.

A small series of boranil complexes has been studied by fluorescence spectroscopy. Weakly fluorescent in most organic solvents at room temperature, the target compounds display bright emission in the crystalline phase. X-ray diffraction patterns obtained for single crystals indicate a distorted tetrahedral geometry around the O-B-N center with the boron atom being displaced from the plane of the heterobicyclic ring. Consideration of the various bond lengths in comparison with those of reference compounds indicates that the ancillary phenyl ring, bearing different para-substituents, does not make a prominent contribution to the molecular dipole moment in the solid state. Absorption and fluorescence spectra recorded for the crystals remain remarkably similar to those for liquid solutions and display large Stokes shifts. Proximity broadening is observed in one case. The nitrophenyl derivative exhibits additional absorption and emission bands unique to the solid state and could be indicative of an intermolecular charge-transfer transition. The optical properties are discussed in terms of the crystal packing diagrams.

Optical spectroscopic properties recorded for simple BOPHY dyes in condensed media: The mirror-symmetry factor.

The BOPHY structural scaffold provides opportunities for the synthesis of innumerable derivatives with linear geometries and well-controlled π-conjugation pathways. The simpler BOPHY chromophores are highly fluorescent but exhibit poor mirror symmetry between absorption and fluorescence spectra at ambient temperature. In particular, the absorption (and excitation) spectra are broad and appear as two overlapping bands of comparable intensity. In constrained media, such as low-temperature rigid glasses or stretched poly(ethylene) films, mirror symmetry is restored. Analysis of the temperature dependence recorded for simple BOPHY derivatives indicates that the vibronic envelope accompanying the electronic transitions can be well described in terms of low- and medium-frequency modes. Whereas the fluorescence spectral profile is only weakly dependent on temperature, the excitation spectrum is far more affected. The magnitude of the low-frequency mode, and the associated electron-phonon coupling, increase substantially with increasing temperature and is responsible for temperature broadening and distortion of the excitation spectrum in solution. This critical low-frequency vibronic mode is associated with out-of-plane torsional bending of the BOPHY unit. Variable temperature NMR studies failed to provide unequivocal evidence for conformational changes of one of the derivatives over the temperature range 193-353 K.

Ultrafast Through-Space Electronic Energy Transfer in Molecular Dyads Built around Dynamic Spacer Units.

A pair of complementary molecular dyads have been synthesized around a 1,2-diaminocyclohexyl spacer that itself undergoes ring inversion. Despite these conformational exchange processes, the donor and acceptor occupy quite restricted spatial regions, and they are not interchangeable. The donor and acceptor pair comprise disparate boron dipyrromethene dyes selected to display favorable electronic energy transfer (EET). Steady-state emission spectroscopy confirms that through-space EET from donor to acceptor is almost quantitative, aided by the relatively short separations. Ultrafast time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy has allowed determination of the rates of EET for both dyads. Surprisingly, in view of the close proximity of donor and acceptor (center-to-center separations less than 20 Å), the EET dynamics are well-accounted for in terms of the computed molecular conformations and conventional Förster theory. One dyad appears as a single family of conformations, but EET for the second dyad corresponds to dual-exponential kinetics. In this latter case, an intramolecular hydrogen bond helps stabilize an open geometry, wherein EET is relatively slow.

Color-Tunable Heterodinuclear Pt(II)/B(III) and Pt(II)/Ir(III) Arrays with N

The synthesis and photophysical properties of two multichromophoric systems, Pt(II)/B(III) and Pt(II)/Ir(III), based on novel N^O-julolidine ligands are reported. The functionalization of the julolidine core enables the introduction of two different anchoring sites, a terminal acetylene and an N^O chelating moiety, which allow the assembling of two different chromophoric centers. The complex photophysical behavior of these multicomponent arrays is rationalized by investigating a series of model compounds, which are prepared through specific synthetic pathways. The photophysical properties of the final multicomponent arrays are investigated in parallel with the models. The multichromophoric system, composed by a platinum(II) and an iridium(III) chromophore connected through a modified julolidine ditopic ligand, displays a peculiar excitation wavelength dependent luminescence behavior. It exhibits tuning of the emission color from blue to orange, passing through pure and warm white.

Solvent-Driven Conformational Exchange for Amide-Linked Bichromophoric BODIPY Derivatives.

The fluorescence lifetime and quantum yield are seen to depend in an unexpected manner on the nature of the solvent for a pair of tripartite molecules composed of two identical boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) residues attached to a 1,10-phenanthroline core. A key feature of these molecular architectures concerns the presence of an amide linkage that connects the BODIPY dye to the heterocyclic platform. The secondary amide derivative is more sensitive to environmental change than is the corresponding tertiary amide. In general, increasing solvent polarity, as measured by the static dielectric constant, above a critical threshold tends to reduce fluorescence but certain hydrogen bond accepting solvents exhibit anomolous behaviour. Fluorescence quenching is believed to arise from light-induced charge transfer between the two BODIPY dyes, but thermodynamic arguments alone do not explain the experimental findings. Molecular modelling is used to argue that the conformation changes in strongly polar media in such a way as to facilitate improved rates of light-induced charge transfer. These solvent-induced changes, however, differ remarkably for the two types of amide.

A bifurcated molecular pentad capable of sequential electronic energy transfer and intramolecular charge transfer.

An extended molecular array, comprising three distinct types of chromophores and two additional redox-active subunits, that harvests photons over most of the visible spectral range has been synthesized and characterised. The array exhibits a rich variety of electrochemical waves when examined by cyclic voltammetry but assignment can be made on the basis of control compounds and molecular orbital calculations. Stepwise electronic energy transfer occurs along the molecular axis, corresponding to a gradient of excitation energies, to populate the lowest-energy excited state of the ultimate acceptor. The latter species, which absorbs and emits in the far-red region, enters into light-induced charge transfer with a terminal amine group. The array is relatively stable under illumination with white light but degrades slowly via a series of well-defined steps, the first of which is autocatalytic. One of the main attributes of this system is the capability to harvest an unusually high fraction of sunlight while providing protection against exposure to UV light.

New 3-(heteroaryl)-2-iminocoumarin-based borate complexes: synthesis, photophysical properties, and rational functionalization for biosensing/biolabeling applications.

Members of a series of boron difluoride complexes with 3-(heteroaryl)-2-iminocoumarin ligands bearing both a phenolic hydroxyl group (acting as a fluorogenic center) and an N-aryl substituent (acting as a stabilizing moiety) have been synthesized in good yields by applying a straightforward two-step method. These novel fluorogenic dyes belong to the family of "Boricos" (D. Frath et al., Chem. Commun.- 2013, 49, 4908-4910) and are the first examples of phenol-based fluorophores of which the photophysical properties in the green-yellow spectral range are dramatically improved by N,N-chelation of a boron atom. Modulation of their fluorescence properties through reversible chemical modification of their phenol moieties has been demonstrated by the preparation of the corresponding 2,4-dinitrophenyl (DNP) ethers, which led to a dramatic "OFF-ON" fluorescence response upon reaction with thiols. Additionally, to expand the scope of these "7-hydroxy-Borico" derivatives, particularly in biolabeling, amine or carboxylic acid functionalities amenable to (bio)conjugation have been introduced within their scaffold. Their utility has been demonstrated in the preparation of fluorescent bovine serum albumin (BSA) conjugates and "Borico"-DOTA-like scaffolds in an effort to design novel monomolecular multimodal fluorescence- radioisotope imaging agents.

Design, synthesis and photochemical properties of the first examples of iminosugar clusters based on fluorescent cores.

The synthesis and photophysical properties of the first examples of iminosugar clusters based on a BODIPY or a pyrene core are reported. The tri- and tetravalent systems designed as molecular probes and synthesized by way of Cu(I)-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloadditions are fluorescent analogues of potent pharmacological chaperones/correctors recently reported in the field of Gaucher disease and cystic fibrosis, two rare genetic diseases caused by protein misfolding.

Step-by-Step Synthesis of Multimodule Assemblies Engineered from BODIPY, DPP, and Triphenylamine Moieties.

In the present account we describe unsymmetrical triads constructed from extended borondipyrromethene (BODIPY) dyes, diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) dyes, and electron donor fragments based on triarylamine. The assemblages are such that each module maintains its individual optical and redox properties. The use of phenyl-alkyne-phenyl or phenyl-alkyne-thienyl spacer units is favorable for weak electronic interaction between the modules. The step-by-step linking of each module using palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions provides both mono- and disubstituted derivatives, the latter obtained by passing in particular through a pivotal monosubstituted DPP building block with a reactive bromo substituent. Thus, grafting of a second dye occurs in a controlled manner, providing the target triads in good yields. This protocol allows also the synthesis of key intermediates and dyads, which appear useful for the understanding of the electrochemical and spectroscopic properties. All the dyes exhibit redox and optical properties suitable for cascade energy transfer and photoinduced electron transfer processes in appropriate solvents.

Synthesis of Highly Functionalized BOPHY Chromophores Displaying Large Stokes Shifts.

BOPHY dyes bearing bromo (in 5,5'-position) and iodo (in 4,4'-position) were synthesized. Double Knoevenagel reactions allow the extension of conjugation, resulting in an absorption above 625 nm. Selective cross-coupling reactions promoted by palladium(0) and microwave irradiation allow linking of a perylene module. These dyes are highly fluorescent, and the intramolecular cascade energy transfer from the perylene moiety to the BOPHY framework is almost quantitative, providing large virtual Stoke shifts (>5100 cm(-1)).

Photochemical Bleaching of an Elaborate Artificial Light-Harvesting Antenna.

The target artificial light-harvesting antenna, comprising 21 discrete chromophores arranged in a logical order, undergoes photochemical bleaching when dispersed in a thin plastic film. The lowest-energy component, which has an absorption maximum at 660 nm, bleaches through first-order kinetics at a relatively fast rate. The other components bleach more slowly, in part, because their excited-state lifetimes are rendered relatively short by virtue of fast intramolecular electronic energy transfer to the terminal acceptor. Two of the dyes, these being close to the terminal acceptor but interconnected through a reversible energy-transfer step, bleach by way of an autocatalytic step. Loss of the terminal acceptor, thereby switching off the energy-transfer route, escalates the rate of bleaching of these ancillary dyes. The opposite terminal, formed by a series of eight pyrene-based chromophores, does not bleach to any significant degree. Confirmation of the various bleaching steps is obtained by examination of an antenna lacking the terminal acceptor, where the autocatalytic route does not exist and bleaching is very slow.

Stepwise photoconversion of an artificial light-harvesting array built from extended BODIPY units.

A molecular dyad, comprising two disparate extended boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) units, has been identified as a potential component of artificial light-harvesting arrays. Highly efficient, intramolecular electronic energy transfer takes place under illumination but there is some competition from light-induced electron transfer along the molecular axis. The primary energy acceptor has a somewhat shortened excited-state lifetime and reduced emission quantum yield due to charge transfer from a terminal amine residue, the latter being required for the molecular system to operate in organic solar cells. Under continuous illumination with simulated solar light, the dyad undergoes very slow decomposition. In a protic solvent, both BODIPY units degrade at the same rate via an autocatalytic process. The products, one of which is a protonated analogue of the donor, degrade further by independent routes. In aprotic solvents or thin plastic films, the acceptor BODIPY dye absorbing at lowest energy undergoes photochemical degradation as above but the donor is much more stable under these conditions. At each stage of degradation, the molecule retains the ability to sensitize an amorphous silicon solar cell and the overall turnover number with respect to absorbed photons exceeds 10 million. The optical properties of the target compound nicely complement those of the solar cell and sensitization helps to avoid Staebler-Wronski photo-degradation.

Highly fluorescent and water-soluble diketopyrrolopyrrole dyes for bioconjugation.

The preparation of highly water-soluble and strongly fluorescent diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) dyes using an unusual taurine-like sulfonated linker has been achieved. Exchanging a phenyl for a thienyl substituent shifts the emission wavelength to near λ=600 nm. The free carboxylic acid group present in these new derivatives was readily activated and the dyes were subsequently covalently linked to a model protein (bovine serum albumin; BSA). The bioconjugates were characterized by electronic absorption, fluorescence spectroscopy and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, thus enabling precise determination of the labeling density (ratio DPP/BSA about 3 to 8). Outstanding values of fluorescence quantum yield (30% to 59%) for these bioconjugates are obtained. The photostability of these DPP dyes is considerably greater than that of fluorescein under the same irradiation conditions. Remarkably low detection limits between 80 and 300 molecules/µm(2) were found for the BSA bioconjugates by fluorescence imaging with a epifluorescence microscope.

Panchromatic luminescence from julolidine dyes exhibiting excited state intramolecular proton transfer.

The preparation and the photophysical behaviour of novel julolidine derivatives designed for displaying excited state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) are reported. These dyes exhibit panchromatic photoluminescence covering the whole visible spectral range, both in organic solvents and in the solid state.

Photoinduced proton transfer promoted by peripheral subunits for some Hantzsch esters.

It is noted that, for a small series of 3,5-diacetyl-1,4-dihydrolutidine (DDL) derivatives and the corresponding Hantzsch esters, the presence of methyl groups at the 2,6-positions serves to extinguish fluorescence in solution but not in the solid state. Emission is weakly activated and affected by changes in solvent polarity. The latter situation arises because the optical transition involves intramolecular charge transfer. Calculations, both semiempirical and DFT, indicate that, in all cases, rotation of the carbonyl function is facile and that the dihydropyridine ring is planar. These calculations also indicate that the 2,6-methyl groups do not affect the generic structure of the molecule. It is proposed that illumination increases the molecular dipole moment and pushes electron density toward the carbonyl oxygen atom. Proton transfer can now occur from one of the methyl groups, leading to formation of a relatively low-energy, neutral intermediate, followed by a second proton transfer step that forms the enol. Reaction profiles computed for the ground-state species indicate that this route is highly favored relative to hydrogen transfer from the 4-position. The barriers for light-induced proton transfer are greatly reduced relative to the ground-state process but such large-scale structural transformations are hindered in the solid state. A rigid analogue that cannot form an enol is highly emissive in solution, supporting the conclusion that proton transfer is in competition to fluorescence in solution.

Substituent and solvent effects on the excited state deactivation channels in anils and boranils.

Differently substituted anils (Schiff bases) and their boranil counterparts lacking the proton-transfer functionality have been studied using stationary and femtosecond time-resolved absorption, fluorescence, and IR techniques, combined with quantum mechanical modelling. Dual fluorescence observed in anils was attributed to excited state intramolecular proton transfer. The rate of this process varies upon changing solvent polarity. In the nitro-substituted anil, proton translocation is accompanied by intramolecular electron transfer coupled with twisting of the nitrophenyl group. The same type of structure is responsible for the emission of the corresponding boranil. A general model was proposed to explain different photophysical responses to different substitution patterns in anils and boranils. It is based on the analysis of changes in the lengths of CN and CC bonds linking the phenyl moieties. The model allows predicting the contributions of different channels that involve torsional dynamics to excited state depopulation.

Triplet state formation in homo- and heterometallic diketopyrrolopyrrole chromophores.

The synthesis, structural characterization, and excited-state dynamics of series of diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) bridged homodinuclear Ir(III) and heterodinuclear Ir(III)/Pt(II) complexes is described. Steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence along with transient absorption measurements were used to probe the nature of the emissive and long-lived excited states. Upon excitation into the (1)DPP ligand-localized excited state in the presence of coordinated Ir(III) or Pt(II) metal centers, the intersystem crossing is enhanced, leading to a quenching of the (1)DPP fluorescence and the formation of the long-lived (τ ≈ 30-40 µs) (3)DPP excited state in all instances.

Thiazolidine derivatives from fluorescent dithienyl-BODIPY-carboxaldehydes and cysteine.

Fluorescent dithienyl-borondipyrromethene (BODIPY) dyes formylated in the ß'-position (2b, 2c) have been treated with L-cysteine to provide thiazolidine derivatives. N-Protection of the thiazolidine unit by ethoxycarbonylation facilitated isolation of the two major diasteroisomers 6 and 7. These stereoisomers have been fully characterized by (1)H NMR spectroscopy, allowing assignment of their stereochemistry as 2R,4R,aS and 2S,4R,aR, respectively. The optical properties of the thiazolidine dyes differ markedly in both absorption (λ(abs) = 612 nm for 6 and 615 nm for 7) and emission (λ(em) = 669 nm, Φ(F) = 62% for 6 and λ(em) = 672 nm, Φ(F) = 19% for 7) from those of the BODIPY-carboxaldehydes 2b (λ(abs) = 643 nm and λ(em) = 719 nm, Φ(F) = 26%) and 2c (λ(abs) = 636 nm and λ(em) = 710 nm, Φ(F) = 36%). In a mixed solvent [phosphate buffer saline (PBS), pH = 7.4/ethanol 1:9], the fluorescence response of the dyes in the presence of L-cysteine is slow, but a ratiometric detection process in the therapeutic window (650 to 800 nm) is evident.

Fluorescent molecular rotors based on the BODIPY motif: effect of remote substituents.

The ability of an unconstrained boron dipyrromethene dye to report on changes in local viscosity is improved by appending a single aryl ring at the lower rim of the dipyrrin core. Recovering the symmetry by attaching an identical aryl ring on the opposite side of the lower rim greatly diminishes the sensory activity, as does blocking rotation of the meso-aryl group. On the basis of viscosity- and temperature-dependence studies, together with quantum chemical calculations, it is proposed that a single aryl ring at the 3-position extends the molecular surface area that undergoes structural distortion during internal rotation. The substitution pattern at the lower rim also affects the harmonic frequencies at the bottom of the potential well and at the top of the barrier. These effects can be correlated with the separation of the H1,H7 hydrogen atoms.

White emitters by tuning the excited-state intramolecular proton-transfer fluorescence emission in 2-(2'-hydroxybenzofuran)benzoxazole dyes.

The synthesis, structural, and photophysical properties of a new series of original dyes based on 2-(2'-hydroxybenzofuran)benzoxazole (HBBO) is reported. Upon photoexcitation, these dyes exhibit intense dual fluorescence with contribution from the enol (E*) and the keto (K*) emission, with K* being formed through excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT). We show that the ratio of emission intensity E*/K* can be fine-tuned by judiciously decorating the molecular core with electron-donating or -attracting substituents. Push-pull dyes 9 and 10 functionalized by a strong donor (nNBu2 ) and a strong acceptor group (CF3 and CN, respectively) exhibit intense dual emission, particularly in apolar solvents such as cyclohexane in which the maximum wavelength of the two bands is the more strongly separated. Moreover, all dyes exhibit strong solid-state dual emission in a KBr matrix and polymer films with enhanced quantum yields reaching up to 54 %. A wise selection of substituents led to white emission both in solution and in the solid state. Finally, these experimental results were analyzed by time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations, which confirm that, on the one hand, only E* and K* emission are present (no rotamer) and, on the other hand, the relative free energies of the two tautomers in the excited state guide the ratio of the E*/K* emission intensities.