ABSTRACT
A 35-year-old man had been using high doses of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) for many years. He had been trying to cut down on use of this drug for 2 months. He was admitted to the hospital suffering from a withdrawal delirium accompanied by hallucinations and agitation. Use of GHB is increasing in the Netherlands. Along with serious intoxication and dependency, the possibility of withdrawal symptoms should also be taken into consideration. Administration of high doses of benzodiazepines is an effective treatment for these withdrawal symptoms.
Subject(s)
Benzodiazepines/therapeutic use , Psychoses, Substance-Induced/diagnosis , Psychoses, Substance-Induced/drug therapy , Sodium Oxybate/adverse effects , Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/drug therapy , Adult , Delirium/drug therapy , Delirium/etiology , Hallucinations/drug therapy , Hallucinations/etiology , Humans , Male , Sodium Oxybate/administration & dosage , Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/diagnosisABSTRACT
A single-tissue compartment model with plasma input is the established method for analysing [(11)C]flumazenil ([(11)C]FMZ) studies. However, arterial cannulation and measurement of metabolites are time-consuming. Therefore, a reference tissue approach is appealing, but this approach has not been fully validated for [(11)C]FMZ. Dynamic [(11)C]FMZ positron emission tomography scans with arterial blood sampling were performed in nine drug-free depressive patients and eight healthy subjects. Regions of interest were defined on co-registered magnetic resonance imaging scans and projected onto dynamic [(11)C]FMZ images. Using a Hill-type metabolite function, single (1T) and reversible two-tissue (2T) compartmental models were compared. Simplified reference tissue model (SRTM) and full reference tissue model (FRTM) were investigated using both pons and (centrum semiovale) white matter as reference tissue. The 2T model provided the best fit in 59% of cases. Two-tissue V(T) values were on average 1.6% higher than 1T V(T) values. Owing to the higher rejection rate of 2T fits (7.3%), the 1T model was selected as plasma input method of choice. SRTM was superior to FRTM, irrespective whether pons or white matter was used as reference tissue. BP(ND) values obtained with SRTM correlated strongly with 1T V(T) (r=0.998 and 0.995 for pons and white matter, respectively). Use of white matter as reference tissue resulted in 5.5% rejected fits, primarily in areas with intermediate receptor density. No fits were rejected using pons as reference tissue. Pons produced 23% higher BP(ND) values than white matter. In conclusion, for most clinical studies, SRTM with pons as reference tissue can be used for quantifying [(11)C]FMZ binding.
Subject(s)
Flumazenil/analysis , Flumazenil/standards , Positron-Emission Tomography/methods , Adult , Arteries , Blood Specimen Collection , Carbon Radioisotopes , Case-Control Studies , Female , Humans , Image Processing, Computer-Assisted/methods , Male , Middle Aged , Pons , Positron-Emission Tomography/standards , Reference StandardsABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: Major depressive disorder has been associated with changes in the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis and with hypercortisolism. However, the changes reported have been at variance, probably related to in- or outpatient status, the use of antidepressant medication and the heterogeneity of depression. We therefore conducted a controlled study in unipolar depressed outpatients who had been free of antidepressants for at least 3 months. DESIGN: We assessed endocrine parameters in 113 depressed outpatients and in 113 sex- and age-matched controls. METHODS: Patients were included if they had a major depression according to a Structural Clinical Interview for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), fourth edition (SCID-IV) and if they had a 17-item Hamilton rating scale for depression (HRSD) score of > or =16. Endocrine parameters contained serum concentrations of TSH, (free) thyroxine, tri-iodothyronine, cortisol, thyroid peroxidase (TPO) antibody titre and 24-h urinary excretion of cortisol. RESULTS: The serum concentration of TSH was slightly higher in depressed patients as compared with controls (P < 0.001), independent of the presence of subclinical hypothyroidism and/or TPO antibodies (n = 28). All other HPT axis parameters were similar in both groups. The 24-h urinary cortisol excretion was similar in patients and controls. In atypical depression, serum cortisol was lower than in non-atypical depression (P = 0.01). Patients with neither melancholic depression nor severe depression (HRSD > or =23) had altered endocrine parameters. Finally, serum TSH values could not be related to cortisol values. CONCLUSION: When compared with matched control subjects, outpatients with major depression had slightly higher serum TSH, while urinary cortisol levels were similar. Furthermore, we observed lower serum cortisol in atypical depression than in non-atypical depression.
