CD40 ligand deficiency causes functional defects of peripheral neutrophils that are improved by exogenous IFN-γ.

BACKGROUND: Patients with X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome caused by CD40 ligand (CD40L) deficiency often present with episodic, cyclic, or chronic neutropenia, suggesting abnormal neutrophil development in the absence of CD40L-CD40 interaction. However, even when not neutropenic and despite immunoglobulin replacement therapy, CD40L-deficient patients are susceptible to life-threatening infections caused by opportunistic pathogens, suggesting impaired phagocyte function and the need for novel therapeutic approaches. OBJECTIVES: We sought to analyze whether peripheral neutrophils from CD40L-deficient patients display functional defects and to explore the in vitro effects of recombinant human IFN-γ (rhIFN-γ) on neutrophil function. METHODS: We investigated the microbicidal activity, respiratory burst, and transcriptome profile of neutrophils from CD40L-deficient patients. In addition, we evaluated whether the lack of CD40L in mice also affects neutrophil function. RESULTS: Neutrophils from CD40L-deficient patients exhibited defective respiratory burst and microbicidal activity, which were improved in vitro by rhIFN-γ but not soluble CD40L. Moreover, neutrophils from patients showed reduced CD16 protein expression and a dysregulated transcriptome suggestive of impaired differentiation. Similar to CD40L-deficient patients, CD40L knockout mice were found to have impaired neutrophil responses. In parallel, we demonstrated that soluble CD40L induces the promyelocytic cell line HL-60 to proliferate and mature by regulating the expression of genes of the same Gene Ontology categories (eg, cell differentiation) when compared with those dysregulated in peripheral blood neutrophils from CD40L-deficient patients. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest a nonredundant role of CD40L-CD40 interaction in neutrophil development and function that could be improved in vitro by rhIFN-γ, indicating a potential novel therapeutic application for this cytokine.

NOD-Like Receptor P3 Inflammasome Controls Protective Th1/Th17 Immunity against Pulmonary Paracoccidioidomycosis.

The NOD-like receptor P3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is an intracellular multimeric complex that triggers the activation of inflammatory caspases and the maturation of IL-1ß and IL-18, important cytokines for the innate immune response against pathogens. The functional NLRP3 inflammasome complex consists of NLRP3, the adaptor protein apoptosis-associated speck-like protein, and caspase-1. Various molecular mechanisms were associated with NLRP3 activation including the presence of extracellular ATP, recognized by the cell surface P2X7 receptor (P2X7R). Several pattern recognition receptors on innate immune cells recognize Paracoccidioides brasiliensis components resulting in diverse responses that influence adaptive immunity and disease outcome. However, the role of NLRP3 inflammasome was scantily investigated in pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), leading us to use an intratracheal (i.t.) model of infection to study the influence of this receptor in anti-fungal immunity and severity of infection. For in vivo studies, C57BL/6 mice deficient for several NLRP3 inflammasome components (Nlrp3-/-, Casp1/11-/-, Asc-/-) as well as deficient for ATP receptor (P2x7r-/-) were infected via i.t. with P. brasiliensis and several parameters of immunity and disease severity analyzed at the acute and chronic periods of infection. Pulmonary PCM was more severe in Nlrp3-/-, Casp1/11-/-, Asc-/-, and P2x7r-/- mice as demonstrated by the increased fungal burdens, mortality rates and tissue pathology developed. The more severe disease developed by NLRP3, ASC, and Caspase-1/11 deficient mice was associated with decreased production of IL-1ß and IL-18 and reduced inflammatory reactions mediated by PMN leukocytes and activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. The decreased T cell immunity was concomitant with increased expansion of CD4+CD25+Foxp3 regulatory T (Treg) cells. Characterization of intracellular cytokines showed a persistent reduction of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells expressing IFN-γ and IL-17 whereas those producing IL-4 and TGF-ß appeared in increased frequencies. Histopathological studies showed that all deficient mouse strains developed more severe lesions containing elevated numbers of budding yeast cells resulting in increased mortality rates. Altogether, these findings led us to conclude that the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome has a crucial role in the immunoprotection against pulmonary PCM by promoting the expansion of Th1/Th17 immunity and reducing the suppressive control mediated by Treg cells.

Paracoccidoides brasiliensis 30 kDa adhesin: identification as a 14-3-3 protein, cloning and subcellular localization in infection models.

Paracoccidoides brasiliensis adhesion to lung epithelial cells is considered an essential event for the establishment of infection and different proteins participate in this process. One of these proteins is a 30 kDa adhesin, pI 4.9 that was described as a laminin ligand in previous studies, and it was more highly expressed in more virulent P. brasiliensis isolates. This protein may contribute to the virulence of this important fungal pathogen. Using Edman degradation and mass spectrometry analysis, this 30 kDa adhesin was identified as a 14-3-3 protein. These proteins are a conserved group of small acidic proteins involved in a variety of processes in eukaryotic organisms. However, the exact function of these proteins in some processes remains unknown. Thus, the goal of the present study was to characterize the role of this protein during the interaction between the fungus and its host. To achieve this goal, we cloned, expressed the 14-3-3 protein in a heterologous system and determined its subcellular localization in in vitro and in vivo infection models. Immunocytochemical analysis revealed the ubiquitous distribution of this protein in the yeast form of P. brasiliensis, with some concentration in the cytoplasm. Additionally, this 14-3-3 protein was also present in P. brasiliensis cells at the sites of infection in C57BL/6 mice intratracheally infected with P. brasiliensis yeast cells for 72 h (acute infections) and 30 days (chronic infection). An apparent increase in the levels of the 14-3-3 protein in the cell wall of the fungus was also noted during the interaction between P. brasiliensis and A549 cells, suggesting that this protein may be involved in host-parasite interactions, since inhibition assays with the protein and this antibody decreased P. brasiliensis adhesion to A549 epithelial cells. Our data may lead to a better understanding of P. brasiliensis interactions with host tissues and paracoccidioidomycosis pathogenesis.

Mannosyl-recognizing receptors induce an M1-like phenotype in macrophages of susceptible mice but an M2-like phenotype in mice resistant to a fungal infection.

In addition to alpha1,3 glucan, mannan and mannan-linked proteins are expressed in the outer layer of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis yeasts. The recognition of mannosyl residues by multiple pathogen recognition receptors, such as the mannose receptor (MR), complement receptor 3 (CR3) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on macrophage membranes can influence macrophage activation and the mechanisms of innate immunity against fungal pathogens. The aim of this study was to clarify the role of these receptors in the interaction between P. brasiliensis and macrophages from resistant (A/J) and susceptible (B10.A) mice. Therefore, the phagocytic, fungicidal and secretory abilities of macrophages were evaluated in the presence of mannan and antibodies against MR, CR3 and TLR4. We verified that mannan increased and anti-MR antibody decreased the killing ability and nitric oxide production of macrophages. The specific blockade of MR, CR3 and TLR4 by monoclonal antibodies impaired fungal recognition and modulated the production of cytokines. Mannan or P. brasiliensis induced decreased expression of MR and TLR2 on A/J macrophages, whereas CR3, TLR4 and TLR2 were reduced on B10.A cells. Importantly, both mannan and P. brasiliensis induced the production of IL-12 by B10.A macrophages, whereas TGF-ß, TNF-α and IL-6 were produced by A/J cells. In addition, B10.A macrophages exhibited a prevalent expression of inducible NO-synthase and SOCS3 (suppressor of cytokine signaling-3), indicating a pro-inflammatory, "M1-like" differentiation. In contrast, the elevated expression of arginase-1, found in inflammatory zone-1 (FIZZ1), YM1 (CHI313, chitinase-like lectin), and SOCS1, typical markers of alternatively activated macrophages, indicates a prevalent "M2-like" differentiation of A/J macrophages. In conclusion, our data reveal that several mannosyl-recognizing receptors coordinate the apparently paradoxical innate response to paracoccidioidomycosis, in which resistance is initially mediated by alternatively activated phagocytes and tolerance to fungal growth, whereas susceptibility is linked to classically activated macrophages and the efficient control of fungal growth.

Innate immunity to Paracoccidioides brasiliensis infection.

Innate immunity is based in pre-existing elements of the immune system that directly interact with all types of microbes leading to their destruction or growth inhibition. Several elements of this early defense mechanism act in concert to control initial pathogen growth and have profound effect on the adaptative immune response that further develops. Although most studies in paracoccidioidomycosis have been dedicated to understand cellular and humoral immune responses, innate immunity remains poorly defined. Hence, the main purpose of this review is to present and discuss some mechanisms of innate immunity developed by resistant and susceptible mice to Paracoccidioides brasiliensis infection, trying to understand how this initial host-pathogen interface interferes with the protective or deleterious adaptative immune response that will dictate disease outcome. An analysis of some mechanisms and mediators of innate immunity such as the activation of complement proteins, the microbicidal activity of natural killer cells and phagocytes, the production of inflammatory eicosanoids, cytokines, and chemokines among others, is presented trying to show the important role played by innate immunity in the host response to P. brasiliensis infection.