ABSTRACT
Artemis is a nuclear phosphoprotein required for genomic integrity whose phosphorylation is increased subsequent to DNA damage. Artemis phosphorylation by the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) and the association of Artemis with DNA-PK catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs) have been proposed to be crucial for the variable, diversity, joining (V(D)J) reaction, genomic stability and cell survival in response to double-stranded DNA breaks. The exact nature of the effectors of Artemis phosphorylation is presently being debated. Here, we have delimited the interface on Artemis required for its association with DNA-PKcs and present the characterization of six DNA-PK phosphorylation sites on Artemis whose phosphorylation shows dependence on its association with DNA-PKcs and is induced by double-stranded DNA damage. Surprisingly, DNA-PKcs Artemis association appeared to be dispensable in a V(D)J recombination assay with stably integrated DNA substrates. Phosphorylation at two of the sites on Artemis, S516 and S645, was verified in vivo using phosphospecific antibodies. Basal Artemis S516 and S645 phosphorylation in vivo showed a significant dependence on DNA-PKcs association. However, regardless of its association with DNA-PKcs, phosphorylation of Artemis at both S516 and S645 was stimulated in response to the double-stranded DNA-damaging agent bleomycin, albeit to a lesser extent. This suggests that additional factors contribute to promote DNA damage-induced Artemis phosphorylation. Intriguingly, pS516/pS645 Artemis was concentrated in chromatin-associated nuclear foci in naïve cells. These foci were maintained upon DNA damage but failed to overlap with the damage-induced gammaH2AX. These results provide the expectation of a specific role for DNA-PK-phosphorylated Artemis in both naïve and damaged cells.
Subject(s)
Chromatin/metabolism , DNA-Activated Protein Kinase/metabolism , Nuclear Proteins/chemistry , Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , Binding Sites , Cell Line , DNA Damage , DNA-Binding Proteins , Endonucleases , Humans , In Vitro Techniques , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Phosphorylation , Recombinant Proteins/chemistry , Recombinant Proteins/genetics , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Recombination, Genetic , TransfectionABSTRACT
DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) occur at random upon genotoxic stresses and represent obligatory intermediates during physiological DNA rearrangement events such as the V(D)J recombination in the immune system. DSBs, which are among the most toxic DNA lesions, are preferentially repaired by the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway in higher eukaryotes. Failure to properly repair DSBs results in genetic instability, developmental delay, and various forms of immunodeficiency. Here we describe five patients with growth retardation, microcephaly, and immunodeficiency characterized by a profound T+B lymphocytopenia. An increased cellular sensitivity to ionizing radiation, a defective V(D)J recombination, and an impaired DNA-end ligation process both in vivo and in vitro are indicative of a general DNA repair defect in these patients. All five patients carry mutations in the Cernunnos gene, which was identified through cDNA functional complementation cloning. Cernunnos/XLF represents a novel DNA repair factor essential for the NHEJ pathway.
Subject(s)
DNA Repair-Deficiency Disorders/genetics , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , Growth Disorders/genetics , Lymphopenia/genetics , Microcephaly/genetics , Adolescent , B-Lymphocytes/immunology , Base Sequence , Cell Cycle/radiation effects , Child , Child, Preschool , DNA Repair Enzymes , DNA Repair-Deficiency Disorders/complications , DNA Repair-Deficiency Disorders/immunology , DNA, Complementary/metabolism , Fibroblasts/immunology , Fibroblasts/radiation effects , Gene Rearrangement, B-Lymphocyte , Growth Disorders/complications , Growth Disorders/immunology , Humans , Immunoglobulin Joining Region/genetics , Immunoglobulin Variable Region/genetics , Lymphopenia/complications , Lymphopenia/immunology , Microcephaly/complications , Microcephaly/immunology , Molecular Sequence Data , Mutation , Radiation Tolerance/genetics , Syndrome , T-Lymphocytes/immunologyABSTRACT
DNA double-strand breaks (dsb) during V(D)J recombination of T and B lymphocyte receptor genes are resolved by the non-homologous DNA end joining pathway (NHEJ) including at least six factors: Ku70, Ku80, DNA-PK(cs), Artemis, Xrcc4, and DNA ligase IV (Lig4). Artemis and Lig4 are the only known V(D)J/NHEJ factors found deficient in human genetic disorders. Null mutations of the Artemis gene result in a complete absence of T and B lymphocytes and increased cellular sensitivity to ionizing radiations, causing radiosensitive-SCID. Mutations of Lig4 are exclusively hypomorphic and have only been described in six patients, four exhibiting mild immunodeficiency associated with microcephaly and developmental delay, while two patient had leukemia. Here we report a SCID associated with microcephaly caused by compound heterozygous hypomorphic mutations in Lig4. Residual activity of Lig4 in these patients is underscored by a normal pattern of TCR-alpha and -beta junctions in the T cells of the patients and a moderate impairment of V(D)J recombination as tested in vitro. These observations contrast with the severity of the clinical immunodeficiency, suggesting that Lig4 may have additional critical roles in lymphocyte survival beyond V(D)J recombination.
Subject(s)
DNA Ligases/genetics , Gene Rearrangement, B-Lymphocyte , Gene Rearrangement, T-Lymphocyte , Microcephaly/genetics , Severe Combined Immunodeficiency/genetics , Base Sequence , Blotting, Western , DNA Ligase ATP , Female , Humans , Immunoglobulin Variable Region , Male , Microcephaly/complications , Molecular Sequence Data , Mutation , Pedigree , Radiation Tolerance , Severe Combined Immunodeficiency/complicationsABSTRACT
Artemis is a DNA repair factor required for V(D)J recombination, repair of DNA damage induced by ionizing radiation (IR) or radiomimetic drugs, and the maintenance of genome integrity. During V(D)J recombination, Artemis participates in the resolution of hairpin-sealed coding ends, a step crucial to the constitution of the gene encoding for the antigen receptor of lymphocytes. The precise role of Artemis in the repair of IR-induced DNA damage remains to be elucidated. Here we show that Artemis is constitutively phosphorylated in cultured cells and undergoes additional phosphorylation events after irradiation. The IR-induced phosphorylation is mainly, although not solely, dependent on Ataxia-telangiectasia-mutated kinase (ATM). The physiological role of these phosphorylation events remains unknown, as in vitro-generated Artemis mutants, which present impaired IR-induced phosphorylation, still display an activity sufficient to complement the V(D)J recombination defect and the increased radiosensibility of Artemis-deficient cells. Thus, Artemis is an effector of DNA repair that can be phosphorylated by ATM, and possibly by DNA-PKcs and ATR depending upon the type of DNA damage.
Subject(s)
DNA Damage/physiology , DNA Repair/physiology , DNA/radiation effects , Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , Amino Acid Motifs , Amino Acid Sequence , Animals , Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated Proteins , Blotting, Western , CHO Cells , Cell Cycle Proteins/immunology , Cricetinae , DNA-Binding Proteins , Endonucleases , Fibroblasts/immunology , Humans , Kinetics , Molecular Sequence Data , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , Nuclear Proteins/immunology , Phosphorylation , Point Mutation , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/immunology , Radiation, Ionizing , Sequence Alignment , Tumor Suppressor ProteinsABSTRACT
The V(D)J recombination/DNA repair factor Artemis belongs to the metallo-beta-lactamase (beta-Lact) superfamily of enzymes. Three regions can be defined within the Artemis protein sequence: (a) the beta-Lact homology domain, to which is appended (b) the beta-CASP region, specific of members of the beta-Lact superfamily acting on nucleic acids, and (c) the COOH-terminal domain. Using in vitro mutagenesis, here we show that the association of the beta-Lact and the beta-CASP regions suffices for in vivo V(D)J recombination of chromosome-integrated substrates. Single amino acid mutants point to critical catalytic residues for V(D)J recombination activity. The results presented here define the beta-Lact/beta-CASP domain of Artemis as the minimal core catalytic domain needed for V(D)J recombination and suggest that Artemis uses one or two Zn(II) ions to exert its catalytic activity, like bacterial class B beta-Lact enzymes hydrolyzing beta-lactam compounds.
Subject(s)
Cytoskeletal Proteins/metabolism , DNA Repair/genetics , Nuclear Proteins/genetics , VDJ Recombinases/metabolism , beta-Lactamases/metabolism , Amino Acid Sequence , Bacteria/enzymology , Bacteria/genetics , Base Sequence , Cell Line , Cell Line, Transformed , Cloning, Molecular , DNA, Complementary/genetics , DNA-Binding Proteins , Endonucleases , Fibroblasts/cytology , Fibroblasts/physiology , Genetic Complementation Test , Humans , Mutagenesis , Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Skin/cytology , Substrate Specificity , Transcription FactorsABSTRACT
V(D)J recombination not only comprises the molecular mechanism that insures diversity of the immune system but also constitutes a critical checkpoint in the developmental program of B and T lymphocytes. The analysis of human patients with severe combined immune deficiency (SCID) has enabled (and will enable in the future) the discovery of important factors involved in this reaction. The finding that the V(D)J recombinase apparatus includes components of the general DNA repair machinery of the cells has provided some new and interesting insights into the role of V(D)J recombination deficiency in the development of lymphoid malignancies, a hypothesis that has been tackled and proven in several animal models.
Subject(s)
Disease Models, Animal , VDJ Recombinases/deficiency , VDJ Recombinases/immunology , Animals , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , Homeodomain Proteins/genetics , Humans , Mice , Mice, Knockout , Nuclear Proteins , Severe Combined Immunodeficiency/genetics , Severe Combined Immunodeficiency/immunologyABSTRACT
V(D)J recombination constitutes a critical checkpoint in the development of the immune system as shown in several animal models as well as severe combined immune deficiency (SCID) condition in humans. We recently cloned the Artemis gene, whose mutations are responsible for RS-SCID, a condition characterized by an absence of both B and T lymphocytes and associated with increased sensitivity to ionizing radiations. Artemis is ubiquitously expressed and is localized in the nucleus. Artemis belongs to the metallo-beta-lactamase superfamily and defines a new group, beta-CASP, within this family. beta-CASP proteins are beta-lactamases acting on nucleic acids. While RS-SCID patients harbor Artemis loss-of-function mutations, we identified four patients with a combined immunodeficiency characterized by a low but detectable number of both B and T lymphocytes caused by hypomorphic mutations in the Artemis gene. Two of these patients developed aggressive B cell lymphomas, a condition that suggests Artemis may be considered a "caretaker" factor, similarly to the other V(D)J recombination/DNA repair actors.
