Sibling relationships and school entry psychosocial functioning: Dual risk or differential susceptibility?

The aim of the present study was to test whether relations between temperament, sibling relationship quality, and problem behavior and social competence of children at school entry are in line with either of two competing models, dual risk and differential susceptibility. Our sample consisted of 977 Dutch mothers (Mean age 35.7 years) reporting about a target child at school entry. Regarding target children, mean age was 4.7 years, 48.1% were boys and 52.1% were older than their sibling. Mean age difference between siblings was 2.7 years. Using a cross-sectional design, mothers filled out online questionnaires concerning sibling relationship quality, temperament, problem behavior, and social competence of the target child. Path analysis was used to examine whether temperament moderated the link between sibling relationship quality and child psychosocial functioning. In line with differential susceptibility, results from moderation analyses indicate that among children low in effortful control (EC), sibling conflict was more strongly positively associated with internalizing and externalizing problems than among children high in EC, but sibling warmth also was more strongly positively related to social competence in children low in EC than in children high in EC. However, follow-up Region of Significance analyses shows that our findings are only consistent with weak differential susceptibility. No significant moderation effects were found for surgency or negative affect. Our findings suggest that low effortful control is a susceptibility marker concerning the link between sibling relationship quality and child functioning. Limitations, implications, and future directions are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

An 11-year prospective study of personality X parenting interactions as predictors of self-efficacy in young adults: diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility?

BACKGROUND: Self-efficacy, individuals' beliefs regarding their capacities to perform actions or control (potentially stressful or novel) events, is thought to be important for various life domains. Little however is known about its early precursors. This study examined the predictive effects of childhood personality and parental behaviors (i.e., overreactive discipline and warmth) for general self-efficacy in young adulthood. Furthermore, it was examined whether personality and parenting behaviors interacted and whether these interactions supported the diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility model. These aims were examined in an 11-year prospective study of 336 participants (Mage at T1 = 10.83 years, range = 9-12 years, 53.9% girls). Personality and parental behaviors were reported at T1 by both mothers and fathers, whereas self-efficacy was self-reported at T2 11 years later. Hypotheses were tested in Mplus using multilevel structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Results revealed that (only) emotional stability, and not parenting, predicted higher self-efficacy 11 years later. Benevolence functioned as a susceptibility marker in the association between overreactivity and self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that childhood emotional stability is an important long-term predictor of self-efficacy, even into emerging adulthood. Moreover, the integration of individual differences in models of parenting effects may further improve our understanding of early adults' adjustment.

Interrelated changes in parental stress, parenting, and coparenting across the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Parental stress is a known risk factor for coercive parenting and for lower coparenting quality. In the present study, we examined whether and how changes in parental stress of mothers and fathers from the pre-COVID-19 period (T1) into the height of the first lockdown in the Netherlands (T2) were linked to changes in coercive parenting of mothers and fathers and to changes in coparenting quality. A total of 96 families (46.9% lower or medium and 53.1% higher educational background), with mother, father, and child (53.1% girls; T1: M age = 3.44 years, SD = 0.32; T2: M age = 4.72 years, SD = 0.61) participated. To examine interrelations between parental stress (reported using the Parental Stress Scale), coparenting, and coercive parenting (both reported using the Parenting And Family Adjustment Scales), a multivariate Latent Change Score (LCS) model was employed. Higher initial levels of parental stress were associated with higher initial levels of coercive parenting and lower initial levels of coparenting quality. Similarly, stronger increases in parental stress were associated with stronger increases in coercive parenting and with stronger decreases in coparenting quality. Directions of associations and effect sizes were similar for mothers and fathers in all analyses. The results from the present study indicate the importance of a family systems perspective in prevention and intervention programs. Promotion of systematic family-based preventive and intervention activities by the government might support families during challenging times, as during the novel COVID-19 pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Moderation of associations between interparental stress and (mal)adaptation by adolescents' personality: Contrasting differential susceptibility and diathesis-stress models.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to contrast differential susceptibility and diathesis-stress models in examining adolescents' Big Five personality dimensions as moderators of longitudinal associations between interparental stress and (mal)adaptation in emerging adulthood (i.e., self-efficacy, externalizing and internalizing behavior). METHOD: Data from the large longitudinal Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality and Development were used (475 families, adolescents' Mage  = 15.82, SDage  = 1.15), with both parents reporting on their interparental stress and mothers reporting on the adolescent's personality and in 2009, and emerging adults reporting on their own (mal)adaptive functioning in 2009 and 2015 and their personality in 2015. RESULTS: Multivariate models showed that extraversion, benevolence, emotional stability and imagination were uniquely related to (mal)adaptation across the 6-year interval. In general, our results exhibited no consistent moderating role for adolescents' personality. Only for girls, high levels of extraversion functioned as a "susceptibility maker" in associations between father's interparental stress and self-efficacy, and, low levels of emotional stability functioned as a "vulnerability marker" in associations between parents' interparental stress and self-efficacy. CONCLUSIONS: The interaction effects as well as their (restricted) generalizability across gender should be replicated before drawing firm conclusions. Adolescents' personality characteristics were important predictors of (mal)adaptation during the transition into emerging adulthood.

Early childhood internalizing problems, externalizing problems and their co-occurrence and (mal)adaptive functioning in emerging adulthood: a 16-year follow-up study.

PURPOSE: A vast amount of studies suggest that internalizing or externalizing problems are related to individual functioning, and often co-occur. Yet, a focus on their additive and interactive effects is scarce. Furthermore, most research has focused on a limited number of developmental domains and mostly on maladaptive functioning. Therefore, the current prospective study examined whether early childhood (ages 4-8) internalizing and externalizing problems and their interaction were related to a broad range of (mal)adaptive functioning outcomes in emerging adulthood (ages 20-24). METHODS: Data from the Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality and Development were used. At Time 1 (1999) mothers of 374 children (45% boys) and fathers of 357 children (46% boys) rated internalizing and externalizing problems through the Child Behavior Checklist. Outcomes in emerging adulthood were measured through self-reports 16 years later across the following domains: psychological functioning, social functioning, work, physical health, and self-concept. RESULTS: Early externalizing problems were related to maladaptive outcomes on the psychological and social domains. With regard to adaptive functioning, externalizing problems were associated with lower satisfaction regarding general health on the physical domain. Early internalizing problems were not associated with any emerging adulthood outcomes. The interaction of (father reported) internalizing and externalizing problems was related to aggressive behavior. CONCLUSION: Early childhood externalizing problems were associated with maladaptive and adaptive functioning over a time span of 16 years. The results add to studies on the implementation of prevention and intervention programs in early childhood and to the value for developing personalized interventions.

The interparental relationship: Meta-analytic associations with children's maladjustment and responses to interparental conflict.

The aim of the current meta-analysis was to aggregate concurrent and longitudinal empirical research on associations between the interparental relationship and both children's maladjustment (i.e., externalizing and internalizing symptoms) and children's responses to interparental conflict (i.e., emotional, behavioral, cognitive, and physiological). Based on major theoretical frameworks, we distinguished between six dimensions of the interparental relationship: relationship quality, conflict frequency, hostile, disengaged, and unconstructive forms of conflict, and child-related conflict. A final selection of 169 studies for child maladjustment and 61 studies for child responses to conflict were included. The findings revealed by the expansive and fine-grained approach of this meta-analysis support and challenge theoretical hypotheses about the relative predictive value of dimensions of the interparental relationship for children's functioning. Although hostility was specifically more strongly associated with children's externalizing behavior and emotional responses to conflict, disengaged and unconstructive conflict behavior posed similar risks for the other domains of child functioning. In addition, relationship quality, conflict frequency, and child-related conflict warrant more attention in theoretical frameworks, as these dimensions posed similar risks to child functioning as the different forms of conflict. Moreover, most associations between the interparental relationship and child functioning endured over time. Also, developmental and gender differences appeared to depend on the specific forms of interparental conflict and the domain of child functioning. In sum, the results support the growing consensus that prevention and intervention programs aimed at children's mental health could benefit from an alternative or additional focus on the interparental relationship. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Personality, depressive symptoms, the interparental relationship and parenting: Prospective associations of an actor-partner interdependency model.

Grounded on Belsky's process model and family systems theories and using an actor-partner interdependency modeling (APIM) approach (Belsky & Jaffee, 2006; Cox & Paley, 2003), the current study was the first to examine whether Big Five personality characteristics and depressive symptoms of parents and their partners are related to adolescent-perceived parenting behavior directly and indirectly via interparental stress experienced by both parents. Longitudinal data (Time 1: 2001; Time 2: 2007; and Time 3: 2009) from a large community sample of Flemish families was used (N = 455; Time 1 children: Mage = 7.10 years). Results revealed that, for both parents, more agreeableness and autonomy predicted more parental warmth, and more depressive symptoms and lower agreeableness predicted more overreactive discipline (i.e., actor effects). Both parents' depressive symptoms predicted their own interparental stress (i.e., actor effects). Regarding partner-effects, paternal overreactive discipline was shaped by mother's extraversion and experienced interparental stress, and paternal warmth was affected by mother's experienced interparental stress in addition to fathers' own psychological resources. In contrast, maternal parenting was affected by their own psychological resources only. Although no consistent mediating role of interparental stress was found, one small dyadic indirect effect indicated that maternal depressive symptoms were related to more paternal overreactive discipline via heightened levels of interparental stress experienced by both parents. These results provide new support for the idea of interdependency between parents and specifically support the fathering vulnerability hypothesis. Tentatively, this study informs clinical practice by showing that family interventions aiming to improve parenting should pay attention to specific personality characteristics affecting parenting behavior and adopt a dyadic approach including both parents, especially when targeting paternal parenting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Normative development of the Child Behavior Checklist Dysregulation Profile from early childhood to adolescence: Associations with personality pathology.

The Dysregulation Profile (DP) is a broad indicator of concurrent affective, behavioral, and cognitive dysregulation, often measured with the anxious/depressed, aggressive behavior, and attention problems syndrome scales of the Child Behavior Checklist. Despite an expanding body of research on the DP, knowledge of the normative developmental course of the DP from early childhood to adolescence is lacking. Furthermore, although we know that the DP longitudinally predicts personality pathology, no research yet has examined whether next to the DP in early childhood, the rate of change of the DP across development predicts personality pathology. Therefore, using cohort-sequential latent growth modeling in a population-based sample (N = 668), we examined the normative developmental course of mother-reported DP from ages 4 to 17 years and its associations with a wide range of adolescent-reported personality pathology dimensions 3 years later. The results showed that the DP follows a nonlinear developmental course with a peak in early adolescence. The initial level of the DP at age 4 and, to a lesser extent, the rate of change in the DP predicted a range of personality pathology dimensions in late adolescence. The findings suggest that the DP is a broad developmental precursor of personality pathology in late adolescence.

Longitudinal associations between marital stress and externalizing behavior: Does parental sense of competence mediate processes?

Ecological theories emphasize associations between children and elements within their family system, such as the marital relationship. Within a developmental perspective, we longitudinally examined (a) dynamic associations between marital stress and children's externalizing behavior, (b) mediation of these associations by parental sense of competence, and (c) the extent to which associations are similar for mothers and fathers. The sample consisted of 369 two-parent families (46.1% boys; Mage at Time 1 = 7.70 years; 368 mothers, 355 fathers). Marital stress related to having a child, children's externalizing behavior, and perceived parental competence were assessed three times across 8 years. Multigroup analyses were used to examine models for both parents simultaneously and test for similarity in associations across spouses. A bivariate latent growth model indicated positive associated change between marital stress and externalizing behavior, supporting the idea of codevelopment. The cross-lagged panel model revealed a reciprocal relation between marital stress and perceived parental competence across a time interval of 6 years. Additionally, two elicitation effects appeared during adolescence, showing that parents who reported higher externalizing problems in early adolescence reported more marital stress and a lower sense of competence two years later. Similar associations were found for mothers and fathers. Overall, this study indicates that marital stress and externalizing behavior codevelop over time and supports literature on developmental differences regarding interrelations between subsystems and individuals within the family system. (PsycINFO Database Record

The development of personality extremity from childhood to adolescence: relations to internalizing and externalizing problems.

This study investigated the development of personality extremity (deviation of an average midpoint of all 5 personality dimensions together) across childhood and adolescence, as well as relations between personality extremity and adjustment problems. For 598 children (mean age at Time 1 = 7.5 years), mothers and fathers reported the Big Five personality dimensions 4 times across 8 years. Children's vector length in a 5-dimensional configuration of the Big Five dimensions represented personality extremity. Mothers, fathers, and teachers reported children's internalizing and externalizing problems at the 1st and final measurement. In a cohort-sequential design, we modeled personality extremity in children and adolescents from ages 6 to 17 years. Growth mixture modeling revealed a similar solution for both mother and father reports: a large group with relatively short vectors that were stable over time (mother reports: 80.3%; father reports: 84.7%) and 2 smaller groups with relatively long vectors (i.e., extreme personality configuration). One group started out relatively extreme and decreased over time (mother reports: 13.2%; father reports: 10.4%), whereas the other group started out only slightly higher than the short vector group but increased across time (mother reports: 6.5%; father reports: 4.9%). Children who belonged to the increasingly extreme class experienced more internalizing and externalizing problems in late adolescence, controlling for previous levels of adjustment problems and the Big Five personality dimensions. Personality extremity may be important to consider when identifying children at risk for adjustment problems.

Developmental personality types from childhood to adolescence: associations with parenting and adjustment.

This study examined whether changes in children's self-reported Big Five dimensions are represented by (developmental) personality types, using a cohort-sequential design with three measurement occasions across 5 years (four cohorts, 9-12 years at T1; N = 523). Correlates of, and gender differences in, type membership were examined. Latent class growth modeling yielded three personality types: Resilients (highest initial levels on all Big Five), Overcontrollers (lowest Extraversion, Emotional Stability, Imagination), and Undercontrollers (lowest Benevolence, Conscientiousness). Gender differences in type membership were small. Warm parenting, but not overreactive discipline, in childhood was associated with type membership. The types differed in adjustment problems by the end of middle adolescence. Personality change more likely occurs at the level of dimensions within types than in type membership.

Effects of childhood aggression on parenting during adolescence: the role of parental psychological need satisfaction.

The current study examined the explanatory role of satisfaction of parental psychological needs in effects of childhood aggression on various adolescent-perceived parenting behaviors in middle adolescence. Research questions were examined in a large multi-informant, prospective community study of ethnic majority Belgian families (N = 609, 49.7% girls). Aggression was rated by parents when children were in middle childhood (M age = 7.5 years) using the Child Behavior Checklist. Parents reported on satisfaction of their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness when children were in preadolescence (M age = 10.5 years) and early adolescence (M age = 13.5 years) using the Parenting Stress Index. Parenting behaviors were rated by adolescents in early adolescence (M age = 13.5 years) and in middle adolescence (M age = 15.5 years), using the Parenting Scale (overreactive discipline), the Psychological Control Scale, Youth Self-Report (psychological control), and the Parenting Practices Questionnaire (warmth). Mediation of associations from aggression to parenting by parents' psychological needs was examined using multiple mediation structural equation modeling analyses. Childhood aggression was related to decreased satisfaction of parents' needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in early adolescence. Satisfaction of parents' needs for relatedness and, to a lesser extent, competence affected later parenting, and satisfaction of all three needs affected changes in parenting. Relations were specific for the different parenting constructs but similar across parental gender. Targeting parents' psychological needs may aid effectiveness of interventions that are aimed at decreasing (psychologically, overreactive) controlling parenting and at increasing supportive parenting.

Longitudinal associations between mothers' and fathers' sense of competence and children's externalizing problems: the mediating role of parenting.

This longitudinal study examined the bidirectional associations between parents' sense of competence and children's externalizing problems, mediation of these associations by parenting behaviors, and differences between mothers and fathers concerning these associations. A sample of 551 families with children (49.9% girls; mean age = 7.83 years, SD = 1.08) participated. We found children's externalizing problems to predict parents' sense of competence 6 years later, both directly and, for mothers but not for fathers, indirectly through inept discipline. Parents' sense of competence did not predict children's externalizing problems, either directly or indirectly via parenting behaviors. Some differences were found between mothers and fathers in the associations between parenting behaviors and sense of competence.

Change and reciprocity in adolescent aggressive and rule-breaking behaviors and parental support and dysfunctional discipline.

This study examined how the development of aggressive/rule-breaking behaviors (9-17 years) is related to the development of overreactive and warm parenting, and explored gender differences in development and interrelations. Externalizing was assessed using combined mother/father reports of the Child Behavior Checklist (N = 516). Overreactivity was assessed using self-reports of the Parenting Scale; warmth was measured using self-reports of the Parenting Practices Questionnaire. All constructs were assessed three times across 6 years. The interrelated development of externalizing and parenting was examined by cohort-sequential multigroup latent growth models. Timing of effects was investigated using multigroup cross-lagged models. The results from latent growth models suggest that boys and girls change similarly in the extent to which they show externalizing behaviors, and indicate that mothers and fathers show somewhat different parenting toward boys than girls. No gender differences were found for interrelations between externalizing and parenting. Initial levels of aggression were related to changes in overreactivity and warmth, and vice versa. Changes in externalizing were related to changes in parenting. Cross-lagged models showed that relations between overreactivity and aggression/rule breaking were reciprocal. Together, results from this study show that adolescent externalizing and parenting affect each other in important ways, regardless of the gender of the child or the parent.

Longitudinal impact of parental and adolescent personality on parenting.

This study provides a test of how personality may shape social behaviors in a long-lasting dyad: the parent-adolescent relationship. In a large Belgian community sample, it was examined which parent Big Five characteristics were related to parenting and whether adolescent Big Five characteristics elicited certain parenting behaviors. Further, the proposition that individual differences are amplified under stress was examined by exploring whether parent personality was differentially related to parenting for parents of "easy" versus "difficult" adolescents. Moreover, possible differences in associations across parental and adolescent gender were explored. Mothers (N = 467) and fathers (N = 428) reported on their personality using the Five-Factor Personality Inventory; adolescents (N = 475) assessed their personality with the Hierarchical Personality Inventory for Children. Two types of parenting behaviors, overreactive discipline and warmth, were assessed 2 years later by parent self-reports, partner reports, and adolescent reports, from which multi-informant latent factors were created. Results indicate that parental personality was more relevant than adolescent personality for explaining overreactivity, but parent and adolescent personality were similarly relevant in explaining warmth. Especially parental and adolescent Agreeableness and adolescent Extraversion were important predictors of both types of parenting. Associations between parental personality and parenting were similarly related to parents of easy versus difficult adolescents, and for mothers and fathers parenting daughters or sons. Together, results show that parent characteristics as well as adolescent characteristics importantly affect dysfunctional and adaptive parenting.

The mediational role of parenting on the longitudinal relation between child personality and externalizing behavior.

Building on prior cross-sectional work, this longitudinal study evaluated the proposition that maternal and paternal overreactive and authoritative parenting mediates the effect of child personality characteristics on externalizing behavior. Data from the Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality, and Problem Behavior were used in a moderated mediation analysis (N=434). Teachers rated children's Big Five characteristics, fathers and mothers rated their parenting, and 3 years later, children rated their externalizing behavior. Mediational analysis revealed both direct and indirect effects. Higher levels of Extraversion and lower levels of Benevolence were related directly to higher levels of child externalizing behavior. Higher levels of paternal authoritative parenting and lower levels of maternal overreactivity were related to lower scores on externalizing behavior. In addition, the relation between Benevolence, Emotional Stability, and externalizing behavior was partially mediated by parental overreactivity. Conscientiousness had an indirect effect on externalizing behavior through paternal authoritative parenting. Relations were not moderated by child gender. This study is of theoretical interest because the results demonstrate that parenting is a mediating mechanism that accounts for associations between personality and externalizing behavior.

Mothers' and fathers' personality and parenting: the mediating role of sense of competence.

This prospective longitudinal study addressed 3 key questions regarding the processes of parenting in a large community sample of mothers (n = 589) and fathers (n = 518). First, the collective impact of parental Big Five personality dimensions on overreactive and warm parenting, assessed 6 years later by adolescents, was examined. Second, mediation of these associations by sense of competence in the parenting role was addressed. Third, it was explored to what extent associations were similar for mothers and fathers. Agreeableness and Extraversion were related to lower levels of overreactivity and higher levels of warmth. Sense of competence completely mediated relations between personality and overreactivity and partially mediated relations between personality and warmth. The associations were found to be similar for mothers and fathers. Overall, sense of competence was shown to be an important mechanism that can explain the link between personality and parenting.