Temporal and spatial variation in the efficiency of a Floc & Sink technique for controlling cyanobacterial blooms in a tropical reservoir.

One of the main symptoms of eutrophication is the proliferation of phytoplankton biomass, including nuisance cyanobacteria. Reduction of the external nutrient load is essential to control eutrophication, and in-lake interventions are suggested for mitigating cyanobacterial blooms to accelerate ecosystem recovery. Floc & Sink (F&S) is one such intervention technique that consists of applying a low dose of coagulants in combination with ballasts for removing cyanobacteria biomass. It is especially suitable for deep lakes with an external nutrient load that is higher than the internal load and suffers from perennial cyanobacterial bloom events. Studies showing the efficacy of the F&S technique have been published, but those testing its variation in efficacy with changes in the environmental conditions are still scarce. Therefore, we evaluated the efficiency of the F&S technique to remove cyanobacteria from water samples collected monthly from two different sites in a deep tropical reservoir (Funil Reservoir, Brazil) in the laboratory. We tested the efficacy of two coagulants, chitosan (CHI) and poly-aluminum chloride (PAC), alone and in combination with lanthanum-modified bentonite (LMB) in settling phytoplankton biomass. We hypothesized that: ⅰ) the combined treatments are more effective in removing the algal biomass and ⅱ) the efficiency of F&S treatments varies spatially and monthly due to changes in environmental conditions. The combined treatments (PAC + LMB or CHI + LMB) removed up to seven times more biomass than single treatments (PAC, CHI, or LMB). Only the treatments CHI and LMB + CHI differed in efficiency between the sites, although all treatments showed significant variation in efficiency over the months at both the sampling sites. The combined treatments exhibited lower removal efficacy during the warm-rainy months (October-March) than during the mild-cold dry months (April-September). At high pH (pH > 10), the efficiency of the CHI and LMB + CHI treatments decreased. CHI had lower removal efficiency when single-cell cyanobacteria were abundant, while the combined treatments were equally efficient regardless of the morphology of the cyanobacteria. Hence, the combination of PAC as a coagulant with a ballast LMB is the most effective technique to precipitate cyanobacteria under the conditions that are encountered around the year in this tropical reservoir.

'Floc and Sink' Technique Removes Cyanobacteria and Microcystins from Tropical Reservoir Water.

Combining coagulants with ballast (natural soil or modified clay) to remove cyanobacteria from the water column is a promising tool to mitigate nuisance blooms. Nevertheless, the possible effects of this technique on different toxin-producing cyanobacteria species have not been thoroughly investigated. This laboratory study evaluated the potential effects of the "Floc and Sink" technique on releasing microcystins (MC) from the precipitated biomass. A combined treatment of polyaluminium chloride (PAC) with lanthanum modified bentonite (LMB) and/or local red soil (LRS) was applied to the bloom material (mainly Dolichospermum circinalis and Microcystis aeruginosa) of a tropical reservoir. Intra and extracellular MC and biomass removal were evaluated. PAC alone was not efficient to remove the biomass, while PAC + LMB + LRS was the most efficient and removed 4.3-7.5 times more biomass than other treatments. Intracellular MC concentrations ranged between 12 and 2.180 µg L-1 independent from the biomass. PAC treatment increased extracellular MC concentrations from 3.5 to 6 times. However, when combined with ballast, extracellular MC was up to 4.2 times lower in the top of the test tubes. Nevertheless, PAC + LRS and PAC + LMB + LRS treatments showed extracellular MC concentration eight times higher than controls in the bottom. Our results showed that Floc and Sink appears to be more promising in removing cyanobacteria and extracellular MC from the water column than a sole coagulant (PAC).

Can small-bodied Daphnia control Raphidiopsis raciborskii in eutrophic tropical lakes? A mesocosm experiment.

Raphidiopsis raciborskii is being considered an expanding, invasive species all over the world. It is a potentially toxin producer cyanobacterium and form blooms specially in (sub)tropical lakes, causing concern to public health. Thus, controlling such phenomena are of vital importance. To test the hypothesis that a tropical clone of Daphnia laevis is able to reduce the biomass of R. raciborskii, we performed a mesocosm experiment simulating a bloom of this cyanobacterium in field conditions and exposing it to ecologically relevant densities of daphniids. In addition, we tested the hypothesis that omnivorous fish would be able to exert a top-down effect on Daphnia, decreasing the effectiveness of this control. We used treatments with (10 and 20 Daphnia L-1) or without Daphnia and fish (3 per mesocosm). Daphnia was able to significantly reduce the biomass of R. raciborskii only at the highest density tested. Fish had low effect on Daphnia biomass, but it is suggested that nutrient recycling by fish might have contributed to the higher R. raciborskii biomass in fish treatments. This is the first evidence of Daphnia control over saxitoxin-producing cyanobacteria in a tropical ecosystem.

Critical assessment of chitosan as coagulant to remove cyanobacteria.

Removal of cyanobacteria from the water column using a coagulant and a ballast compound is a promising technique to mitigate nuisance. As coagulant the organic, biodegradable polymer chitosan has been promoted. Results in this study show that elevated pH, as may be common during cyanobacterial blooms, as well as high alkalinity may hamper the coagulation of chitosan and thus impair its ability to effectively remove positively buoyant cyanobacteria from the water column. The underlying mechanism is likely a shielding of the protonated groups by anions. Inasmuch as there are many chitosan formulations, thorough testing of each chitosan prior to its application is essential. Results obtained in glass tubes were similar to those from standard jar tests demonstrating that glass tube tests can be used for testing effects of coagulants and ballasts in cyanobacteria removal whilst allowing far more replicates. There was no relation between zeta potential and precipitated cyanobacteria. Given the well-known antibacterial activity of chitosan and recent findings of anti-cyanobacterial effects, pre-application tests are needed to decipher if chitosan may cause cell leakage of cyanotoxins. Efficiency- and side-effect testing are crucial for water managers to determine if the selected approach can be used in tailor-made interventions to control cyanobacterial blooms and to mitigate eutrophication.

Coagulant plus ballast technique provides a rapid mitigation of cyanobacterial nuisance.

Cyanobacteria blooms are a risk to environmental health and public safety due to the potent toxins certain cyanobacteria can produce. These nuisance organisms can be removed from water bodies by biomass flocculation and sedimentation. Here, we studied the efficacy of combinations of a low dose coagulant (poly-aluminium chloride-PAC-or chitosan) with different ballast compounds (red soil, bauxite, gravel, aluminium modified zeolite and lanthanum modified bentonite) to remove cyanobacterial biomass from water collected in Funil Reservoir (Brazil). We tested the effect of different cyanobacterial biomass concentrations on removal efficiency. We also examined if zeta potential was altered by treatments. Addition of low doses of PAC and chitosan (1-8 mg Al L-1) to the cyanobacterial suspensions caused flock formation, but did not settle the cyanobacteria. When those low dose coagulants were combined with ballast, effective settling in a dose-dependent way up to 99.7% removal of the flocks could be achieved without any effect on the zeta potential and thus without potential membrane damage. Removal efficacy was influenced by the cyanobacterial biomass and at higher biomass more ballast was needed to achieve good removal. The combined coagulant-ballast technique provides a promising alternative to algaecides in lakes, ponds and reservoirs.

The efficiency of combined coagulant and ballast to remove harmful cyanobacterial blooms in a tropical shallow system.

We tested the hypothesis that a combination of coagulant and ballast could be efficient for removal of positively buoyant harmful cyanobacteria in shallow tropical waterbodies, and will not promote the release of cyanotoxins. This laboratory study examined the efficacy of coagulants [polyaluminium chloride (PAC) and chitosan (made of shrimp shells)] alone, and combined with ballast (lanthanum modified bentonite, red soil or gravel) to remove the natural populations of cyanobacteria collected from a shallow eutrophic urban reservoir with alternating blooms of Cylindrospermopsis and Microcystis. PAC combined with ballast was effective in settling blooms dominated by Microcystis or Cylindrospermopsis. Contrary to our expectation, chitosan combined with ballast was only effective in settling Cylindrospermopsis-dominated blooms at low pH, whereas at pH≥8 no effective flocculation and settling could be evoked. Chitosan also had a detrimental effect on Cylindrospermopsis causing the release of saxitoxins. In contrast, no detrimental effect on Microcystis was observed and all coagulant-ballast treatments were effective in not only settling the Microcystis dominated bloom, but also lowering dissolved microcystin concentrations. Our data show that the best procedure for biomass reduction also depends on the dominant species.

Chitosan as coagulant on cyanobacteria in lake restoration management may cause rapid cell lysis.

Combining coagulant and ballast to remove cyanobacteria from the water column is a promising restoration technique to mitigate cyanobacterial nuisance in surface waters. The organic, biodegradable polymer chitosan has been promoted as a coagulant and is viewed as non-toxic. In this study, we show that chitosan may rapidly compromise membrane integrity and kill certain cyanobacteria leading to release of cell contents in the water. A strain of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and one strain of Planktothrix agardhii were most sensitive. A 1.3 h exposure to a low dose of 0.5 mg l-1 chitosan already almost completely killed these cultures resulting in release of cell contents. After 24 h, reductions in PSII efficiencies of all cyanobacteria tested were observed. EC50 values varied from around 0.5 mg l-1 chitosan for the two sensitive strains, via about 5 mg l-1 chitosan for an Aphanizomenon flos-aquae strain, a toxic P. agardhii strain and two Anabaena cylindrica cultures, to more than 8 mg l-1 chitosan for a Microcystis aeruginosa strain and another A. flos-aquae strain. Differences in sensitivity to chitosan might be related to polymeric substances that surround cyanobacteria. Rapid lysis of toxic strains is likely and when chitosan flocking and sinking of cyanobacteria is considered in lake restoration, flocculation efficacy studies should be complemented with investigation on the effects of chitosan on the cyanobacteria assemblage being targeted.

Microbial Food-Web Drivers in Tropical Reservoirs.

Element cycling in aquatic systems is driven chiefly by planktonic processes, and the structure of the planktonic food web determines the efficiency of carbon transfer through trophic levels. However, few studies have comprehensively evaluated all planktonic food-web components in tropical regions. The aim of this study was to unravel the top-down controls (metazooplankton community structure), bottom-up controls (resource availability), and hydrologic (water residence time) and physical (temperature) variables that affect different components of the microbial food web (MFW) carbon stock in tropical reservoirs, through structural equation models (SEM). We conducted a field study in four deep Brazilian reservoirs (Balbina, Tucuruí, Três Marias, and Funil) with different trophic states (oligo-, meso-, and eutrophic). We found evidence of a high contribution of the MFW (up to 50% of total planktonic carbon), especially in the less-eutrophic reservoirs (Balbina and Tucuruí). Bottom-up and top-down effects assessed through SEM indicated negative interactions between soluble reactive phosphorus and phototrophic picoplankton (PPP), dissolved inorganic nitrogen, and heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNF). Copepods positively affected ciliates, and cladocerans positively affected heterotrophic bacteria (HB) and PPP. Higher copepod/cladoceran ratios and an indirect positive effect of copepods on HB might strengthen HB-HNF coupling. We also found low values for the degree of uncoupling (D) and a low HNF/HB ratio compared with literature data (mostly from temperate regions). This study demonstrates the importance of evaluating the whole size spectrum (including microbial compartments) of the different planktonic compartments, in order to capture the complex carbon dynamics of tropical aquatic ecosystems.

Controlling cyanobacterial blooms through effective flocculation and sedimentation with combined use of flocculants and phosphorus adsorbing natural soil and modified clay.

Eutrophication often results in blooms of toxic cyanobacteria that hamper the use of lakes and reservoirs. In this paper, we experimentally evaluated the efficacy of a metal salt (poly-aluminium chloride, PAC) and chitosan, alone and combined with different doses of the lanthanum modified bentonite Phoslock(®) (LMB) or local red soil (LRS) to sediment positively buoyant cyanobacteria from Funil Reservoir, Brazil, (22°30'S, 44°45'W). We also tested the effect of calcium peroxide (CaO2) on suspended and settled cyanobacterial photosystem efficiency, and evaluated the soluble reactive P (SRP) adsorbing capacity of both LMB and LRS under oxic and anoxic conditions. Our data showed that buoyant cyanobacteria could be flocked and effectively precipitated using a combination of PAC or chitosan with LMB or LRS. The SRP sorption capacity of LMB was higher than that of LRS. The maximum P adsorption was lowered under anoxic conditions especially for LRS ballast. CaO2 addition impaired photosystem efficiency at 1 mg L(-1) or higher and killed precipitated cyanobacteria at 4 mg L(-1) or higher. A drawback was that oxygen production from the peroxide gave positive buoyancy again to the settled flocs. Therefore, further experimentations with slow release pellets are recommended.