Translating the COVID-19 epidemiological situation into policies and measures: the Belgian experience.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to sustained surveillance efforts, which made unprecedented volumes and types of data available. In Belgium, these data were used to conduct a targeted and regular assessment of the epidemiological situation. In addition, management tools were developed, incorporating key indicators and thresholds, to define risk levels and offer guidance to policy makers. Categorizing risk into various levels provided a stable framework to monitor the COVID-19 epidemiological situation and allowed for clear communication to authorities. Although translating risk levels into specific public health measures has remained challenging, this experience was foundational for future evaluation of the situation for respiratory infections in general, which, in Belgium, is now based on a management tool combining different data sources.

The adaptive roles of aneuploidy and polyclonality in Leishmania in response to environmental stress.

Aneuploidy is generally considered harmful, but in some microorganisms, it can act as an adaptive mechanism against environmental stress. Here, we use Leishmania-a protozoan parasite with remarkable genome plasticity-to study the early steps of aneuploidy evolution under high drug pressure (using antimony or miltefosine as stressors). By combining single-cell genomics, lineage tracing with cellular barcodes, and longitudinal genome characterization, we reveal that aneuploidy changes under antimony pressure result from polyclonal selection of pre-existing karyotypes, complemented by further and rapid de novo alterations in chromosome copy number along evolution. In the case of miltefosine, early parasite adaptation is associated with independent point mutations in a miltefosine transporter gene, while aneuploidy changes only emerge later, upon exposure to increased drug levels. Therefore, polyclonality and genome plasticity are hallmarks of parasite adaptation, but the scenario of aneuploidy dynamics depends on the nature and strength of the environmental stress as well as on the existence of other pre-adaptive mechanisms.

Discovery of pyrazolopyrrolidinones as potent, broad-spectrum inhibitors of Leishmania infection.

Introduction: Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease that affects more than 1 million people worldwide annually, predominantly in resource-limited settings. The challenge in compound development is to exhibit potent activity against the intracellular stage of the parasite (the stage present in the mammalian host) without harming the infected host cells. We have identified a compound series (pyrazolopyrrolidinones) active against the intracellular parasites of Leishmania donovani and L. major; the causative agents of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Old World, respectively. Methods: In this study, we performed medicinal chemistry on a newly discovered antileishmanial chemotype, with over 100 analogs tested. Studies included assessments of antileishmanial potency, toxicity towards host cells, and in vitro ADME screening of key drug properties. Results and discussion: Members of the series showed high potency against the deadliest form, visceral leishmaniasis (approximate EC50 ≥ 0.01 µM without harming the host macrophage up to 10.0 µM). In comparison, the most efficient monotherapy treatment for visceral leishmaniasis is amphotericin B, which presents similar activity in the same assay (EC50 = 0.2 µM) while being cytotoxic to the host cell at 5.0 µM. Continued development of this compound series with the Discovery Partnership with Academia (DPAc) program at the GlaxoSmithKline Diseases of the Developing World (GSK DDW) laboratories found that the compounds passed all of GSK's criteria to be defined as a potential lead drug series for leishmaniasis. Conclusion: Here, we describe preliminary structure-activity relationships for antileishmanial pyrazolopyrrolidinones, and our progress towards the identification of candidates for future in vivo assays in models of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis.

Hepatitis of unknown aetiology in children - epidemiological overview of cases reported in Europe, 1 January to 16 June 2022.

Following the report of an excess in paediatric cases of severe acute hepatitis of unknown aetiology by the United Kingdom (UK) on 5 April 2022, 427 cases were reported from 20 countries in the World Health Organization European Region to the European Surveillance System TESSy from 1 January 2022 to 16 June 2022. Here, we analysed demographic, epidemiological, clinical and microbiological data available in TESSy. Of the reported cases, 77.3% were 5 years or younger and 53.5% had a positive test for adenovirus, 10.4% had a positive RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 and 10.3% were coinfected with both pathogens. Cases with adenovirus infections were significantly more likely to be admitted to intensive care or high-dependency units (OR = 2.11; 95% CI: 1.18-3.74) and transplanted (OR = 3.36; 95% CI: 1.19-9.55) than cases with a negative test result for adenovirus, but this was no longer observed when looking at this association separately between the UK and other countries. Aetiological studies are needed to ascertain if adenovirus plays a role in this possible emergence of hepatitis cases in children and, if confirmed, the mechanisms that could be involved.

Genomic and Phenotypic Characterization of Experimentally Selected Resistant Leishmania donovani Reveals a Role for Dynamin-1-Like Protein in the Mechanism of Resistance to a Novel Antileishmanial Compound.

The implementation of prospective drug resistance (DR) studies in the research-and-development (R&D) pipeline is a common practice for many infectious diseases but not for neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Here, we explored and demonstrated the importance of this approach using as paradigms Leishmania donovani, the etiological agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), and TCMDC-143345, a promising compound of the GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) "Leishbox" to treat VL. We experimentally selected resistance to TCMDC-143345 in vitro and characterized resistant parasites at the genomic and phenotypic levels. We found that it took more time to develop resistance to TCMDC-143345 than to other drugs in clinical use and that there was no cross-resistance to these drugs, suggesting a new and unique mechanism. By whole-genome sequencing, we found two mutations in the gene encoding the L. donovani dynamin-1-like protein (LdoDLP1) that were fixed at the highest drug pressure. Through phylogenetic analysis, we identified LdoDLP1 as a family member of the dynamin-related proteins, a group of proteins that impacts the shapes of biological membranes by mediating fusion and fission events, with a putative role in mitochondrial fission. We found that L. donovani lines genetically engineered to harbor the two identified LdoDLP1 mutations were resistant to TCMDC-143345 and displayed altered mitochondrial properties. By homology modeling, we showed how the two LdoDLP1 mutations may influence protein structure and function. Taken together, our data reveal a clear involvement of LdoDLP1 in the adaptation/reduced susceptibility of L. donovani to TCMDC-143345. IMPORTANCE Humans and their pathogens are continuously locked in a molecular arms race during which the eventual emergence of pathogen drug resistance (DR) seems inevitable. For neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), DR is generally studied retrospectively once it has already been established in clinical settings. We previously recommended to keep one step ahead in the host-pathogen arms race and implement prospective DR studies in the R&D pipeline, a common practice for many infectious diseases but not for NTDs. Here, using Leishmania donovani, the etiological agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), and TCMDC-143345, a promising compound of the GSK Leishbox to treat VL, as paradigms, we experimentally selected resistance to the compound and proceeded to genomic and phenotypic characterization of DR parasites. The results gathered in the present study suggest a new DR mechanism involving the L. donovani dynamin-1-like protein (LdoDLP1) and demonstrate the practical relevance of prospective DR studies.

The Absence of C-5 DNA Methylation in Leishmania donovani Allows DNA Enrichment from Complex Samples.

Cytosine C5 methylation is an important epigenetic control mechanism in a wide array of eukaryotic organisms and generally carried out by proteins of the C-5 DNA methyltransferase family (DNMTs). In several protozoans, the status of this mechanism remains elusive, such as in Leishmania, the causative agent of the disease leishmaniasis in humans and a wide array of vertebrate animals. In this work, we showed that the Leishmania donovani genome contains a C-5 DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) from the DNMT6 subfamily, whose function is still unclear, and verified its expression at the RNA level. We created viable overexpressor and knock-out lines of this enzyme and characterized their genome-wide methylation patterns using whole-genome bisulfite sequencing, together with promastigote and amastigote control lines. Interestingly, despite the DNMT6 presence, we found that methylation levels were equal to or lower than 0.0003% at CpG sites, 0.0005% at CHG sites, and 0.0126% at CHH sites at the genomic scale. As none of the methylated sites were retained after manual verification, we conclude that there is no evidence for DNA methylation in this species. We demonstrated that this difference in DNA methylation between the parasite (no detectable DNA methylation) and the vertebrate host (DNA methylation) allowed enrichment of parasite vs. host DNA using methyl-CpG-binding domain columns, readily available in commercial kits. As such, we depleted methylated DNA from mixes of Leishmania promastigote and amastigote DNA with human DNA, resulting in average Leishmania:human enrichments from 62× up to 263×. These results open a promising avenue for unmethylated DNA enrichment as a pre-enrichment step before sequencing Leishmania clinical samples.

Importance of secondary screening with clinical isolates for anti-leishmania drug discovery.

The growing drug resistance (DR) raises major concerns for the control of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), a neglected disease lethal in 95 percent of the cases if left untreated. Resistance has rendered antimonials (SSG) obsolete in the Indian Sub-Continent (ISC) and the first miltefosine-resistant Leishmania donovani were isolated. New chemotherapeutic options are needed and novel compounds are being identified by high-throughput screening (HTS). HTS is generally performed with old laboratory strains such as LdBOB and we aimed here to validate the activity of selected compounds against recent clinical isolates. In this academic/industrial collaboration, 130 compounds from the GSK "Leishbox" were screened against one SSG-sensitive and one SSG-resistant strain of L. donovani recently isolated from ISC patients, using an intracellular assay of L. donovani-infected THP1-derived macrophages. We showed that only 45% of the compounds were active in both clinical isolates and LdBOB. There were also different compound efficiencies linked to the SSG susceptibility background of the strains. In addition, our results suggested that the differential susceptibility profiles were chemical series-dependent. In conclusion, we demonstrate the potential value of including clinical isolates (as well as resistant strains) in the HTS progression cascade.

Integrated genomic and metabolomic profiling of ISC1, an emerging Leishmania donovani population in the Indian subcontinent.

Leishmania donovani is the responsible agent for visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in the Indian subcontinent (ISC). The disease is lethal without treatment and causes 0.2 to 0.4 million cases each year. Recently, reports of VL in Nepalese hilly districts have increased as well as VL cases caused by L. donovani from the ISC1 genetic group, a new and emerging genotype. In this study, we perform for the first time an integrated, untargeted genomics and metabolomics approach to characterize ISC1, in comparison with the Core Group (CG), main population that drove the most recent outbreak of VL in the ISC. We show that the ISC1 population is very different from the CG, both at genome and metabolome levels. The genomic differences include SNPs, CNV and small indels in genes coding for known virulence factors, immunogens and surface proteins. Both genomic and metabolic approaches highlighted dissimilarities related to membrane lipids, the nucleotide salvage pathway and the urea cycle in ISC1 versus CG. Many of these pathways and molecules are important for the interaction with the host/extracellular environment. Altogether, our data predict major functional differences in ISC1 versus CG parasites, including virulence. Therefore, particular attention is required to monitor the fate of this emerging ISC1 population in the ISC, especially in a post-VL elimination context.

Trypanosoma musculi Infection in Mice Critically Relies on Mannose Receptor-Mediated Arginase Induction by a TbKHC1 Kinesin H Chain Homolog.

Arginase activity induction in macrophages is an escape mechanism developed by parasites to cope with the host's immune defense and benefit from increased host-derived growth factor production. We report that arginase expression and activity were induced in macrophages during mouse infection by Trypanosoma musculi, a natural parasite of this host. This induction was reproduced in vitro by excreted/secreted factors of the parasite. A mAb directed to TbKHC1, an orphan kinesin H chain from Trypanosoma brucei, inhibited T. musculi excreted/secreted factor-mediated arginase induction. Anti-TbKHC1 Ab also inhibited T. musculi growth, both in vitro and in vivo. Induction of arginase activity and parasite growth involved C-type lectin receptors, because mannose injection decreased arginase activity induction and parasite load in vitro and in vivo. Accordingly, the parasite load was reduced in mice lacking mannose receptor C-type 1. The T. musculi KHC1 homolog showed high similarity with TbKHC1. Bioinformatics analysis revealed the presence of homologs of this gene in other trypanosomes, including pathogens for humans and animals. Host metabolism dysregulation represents an effective parasite mechanism to hamper the host immune response and modify host molecule production to favor parasite invasion and growth. Thus, this orphan kinesin plays an important role in promoting trypanosome infection, and its neutralization or the lock of its partner host molecules offers promising approaches to increasing resistance to infection and new developments in vaccination against trypanosomiasis.

Macromolecular biosynthetic parameters and metabolic profile in different life stages of Leishmania braziliensis: Amastigotes as a functionally less active stage.

It was recently hypothesized that Leishmania amastigotes could constitute a semi-quiescent stage characterized by low replication and reduced metabolic activity. This concept developed with Leishmania (Leishmania) mexicana and Leishmania (Leishmania) major models might explain numerous clinical and sub-clinical features of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis infections, like reactivation of the disease, non-response to chemotherapy or asymptomatic infections. We compared here in vitro the proliferative capability of L. (V.) braziliensis amastigotes and promastigotes, assessed the expression of key molecular parameters and performed metabolomic analysis. We found that contrary to the highly proliferative promastigotes, amastigotes (axenic and intracellular) do not show evidence of extensive proliferation. In parallel, amastigotes showed a significant decrease of (i) the kDNA mini-circle abundance, (ii) the intracellular ATP level, (iii) the ribosomal components: rRNA subunits 18S and 28S α and ribosomal proteins RPS15 and RPL19, (iv) total RNA and protein levels. An untargeted metabolomic study identified clear differences between the different life stages: in comparison to logarithmic promastigotes, axenic amastigotes showed (a) a strong decrease of 14 essential and non-essential amino acids and eight metabolites involved in polyamine synthesis, (b) extensive changes in the phospholipids composition and (c) increased levels of several endogenous and exogenous sterols. Altogether, our results show that L. (V.) braziliensis amastigotes can show a phenotype with negligible rate of proliferation, a lower capacity of biosynthesis, a reduced bio-energetic level and a strongly altered metabolism. Our results pave the way for further exploration of quiescence among amastigotes of this species.

Exploiting Knowledge on Leishmania Drug Resistance to Support the Quest for New Drugs.

New drugs are needed to control leishmaniasis and efforts are currently on-going to counter the neglect of this disease. We discuss here the utility and the impact of associating drug resistance (DR) studies to drug discovery pipelines. We use as paradigm currently used drugs, antimonials and miltefosine, and complement our reflection by interviewing three experts in the field. We suggest DR studies to be involved at two different stages of drug development: (i) the efficiency of novel compounds should be confirmed on sets of strains including recent clinical isolates with DR; (ii) experimental DR should be generated to promising compounds at an early stage of their development, to further optimize them and monitor clinical trials.

Naloxonazine, an Amastigote-Specific Compound, Affects Leishmania Parasites through Modulation of Host-Encoded Functions.

Host-directed therapies (HDTs) constitute promising alternatives to traditional therapy that directly targets the pathogen but is often hampered by pathogen resistance. HDT could represent a new treatment strategy for leishmaniasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by the obligate intracellular parasite Leishmania. This protozoan develops exclusively within phagocytic cells, where infection relies on a complex molecular interplay potentially exploitable for drug targets. We previously identified naloxonazine, a compound specifically active against intracellular but not axenic Leishmania donovani. We evaluated here whether this compound could present a host cell-dependent mechanism of action. Microarray profiling of THP-1 macrophages treated with naloxonazine showed upregulation of vATPases, which was further linked to an increased volume of intracellular acidic vacuoles. Treatment of Leishmania-infected macrophages with the vATPase inhibitor concanamycin A abolished naloxonazine effects, functionally demonstrating that naloxonazine affects Leishmania amastigotes indirectly, through host cell vacuolar remodeling. These results validate amastigote-specific screening approaches as a powerful way to identify alternative host-encoded targets. Although the therapeutic value of naloxonazine itself is unproven, our results further demonstrate the importance of intracellular acidic compartments for host defense against Leishmania, highlighting the possibility of targeting this host cell compartment for anti-leishmanial therapy.

Alice in microbes' land: adaptations and counter-adaptations of vector-borne parasitic protozoa and their hosts.

In the present review, we aim to provide a general introduction to different facets of the arms race between pathogens and their hosts/environment, emphasizing its evolutionary aspects. We focus on vector-borne parasitic protozoa, which have to adapt to both invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. Using Leishmania, Trypanosoma and Plasmodium as main models, we review successively (i) the adaptations and counter-adaptations of parasites and their invertebrate host, (ii) the adaptations and counter-adaptations of parasites and their vertebrate host and (iii) the impact of human interventions (chemotherapy, vaccination, vector control and environmental changes) on these adaptations. We conclude by discussing the practical impact this knowledge can have on translational research and public health.

Evolutionary genomics of epidemic visceral leishmaniasis in the Indian subcontinent.

Leishmania donovani causes visceral leishmaniasis (VL), the second most deadly vector-borne parasitic disease. A recent epidemic in the Indian subcontinent (ISC) caused up to 80% of global VL and over 30,000 deaths per year. Resistance against antimonial drugs has probably been a contributing factor in the persistence of this epidemic. Here we use whole genome sequences from 204 clinical isolates to track the evolution and epidemiology of L. donovani from the ISC. We identify independent radiations that have emerged since a bottleneck coincident with 1960s DDT spraying campaigns. A genetically distinct population frequently resistant to antimonials has a two base-pair insertion in the aquaglyceroporin gene LdAQP1 that prevents the transport of trivalent antimonials. We find evidence of genetic exchange between ISC populations, and show that the mutation in LdAQP1 has spread by recombination. Our results reveal the complexity of L. donovani evolution in the ISC in response to drug treatment.

Targeting Ergosterol biosynthesis in Leishmania donovani: essentiality of sterol 14 alpha-demethylase.

Leishmania protozoan parasites (Trypanosomatidae family) are the causative agents of cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis worldwide. While these diseases are associated with significant morbidity and mortality, there are few adequate treatments available. Sterol 14alpha-demethylase (CYP51) in the parasite sterol biosynthesis pathway has been the focus of considerable interest as a novel drug target in Leishmania. However, its essentiality in Leishmania donovani has yet to be determined. Here, we use a dual biological and pharmacological approach to demonstrate that CYP51 is indispensable in L. donovani. We show via a facilitated knockout approach that chromosomal CYP51 genes can only be knocked out in the presence of episomal complementation and that this episome cannot be lost from the parasite even under negative selection. In addition, we treated wild-type L. donovani and CYP51-deficient strains with 4-aminopyridyl-based inhibitors designed specifically for Trypanosoma cruzi CYP51. While potency was lower than in T. cruzi, these inhibitors had increased efficacy in parasites lacking a CYP51 allele compared to complemented parasites, indicating inhibition of parasite growth via a CYP51-specific mechanism and confirming essentiality of CYP51 in L. donovani. Overall, these results provide support for further development of CYP51 inhibitors for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis.

A Trypanosoma brucei kinesin heavy chain promotes parasite growth by triggering host arginase activity.

BACKGROUND: In order to promote infection, the blood-borne parasite Trypanosoma brucei releases factors that upregulate arginase expression and activity in myeloid cells. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: By screening a cDNA library of T. brucei with an antibody neutralizing the arginase-inducing activity of parasite released factors, we identified a Kinesin Heavy Chain isoform, termed TbKHC1, as responsible for this effect. Following interaction with mouse myeloid cells, natural or recombinant TbKHC1 triggered SIGN-R1 receptor-dependent induction of IL-10 production, resulting in arginase-1 activation concomitant with reduction of nitric oxide (NO) synthase activity. This TbKHC1 activity was IL-4Rα-independent and did not mirror M2 activation of myeloid cells. As compared to wild-type T. brucei, infection by TbKHC1 KO parasites was characterized by strongly reduced parasitaemia and prolonged host survival time. By treating infected mice with ornithine or with NO synthase inhibitor, we observed that during the first wave of parasitaemia the parasite growth-promoting effect of TbKHC1-mediated arginase activation resulted more from increased polyamine production than from reduction of NO synthesis. In late stage infection, TbKHC1-mediated reduction of NO synthesis appeared to contribute to liver damage linked to shortening of host survival time. CONCLUSION: A kinesin heavy chain released by T. brucei induces IL-10 and arginase-1 through SIGN-R1 signaling in myeloid cells, which promotes early trypanosome growth and favors parasite settlement in the host. Moreover, in the late stage of infection, the inhibition of NO synthesis by TbKHC1 contributes to liver pathogenicity.

Examination of the mode of action of the almiramide family of natural products against the kinetoplastid parasite Trypanosoma brucei.

Almiramide C is a marine natural product with low micromolar activity against Leishmania donovani, the causative agent of leishmaniasis. We have now shown that almiramide C is also active against the related parasite Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of human African trypanosomiasis. A series of activity-based probes have been synthesized to explore both the molecular target of this compound series in T. brucei lysates and site localization through epifluorescence microscopy. These target identification studies indicate that the almiramides likely perturb glycosomal function through disruption of membrane assembly machinery. Glycosomes, which are organelles specific to kinetoplastid parasites, house the first seven steps of glycolysis and have been shown to be essential for parasite survival in the bloodstream stage. There are currently no reported small-molecule disruptors of glycosome function, making the almiramides unique molecular probes for this understudied parasite-specific organelle. Additionally, examination of toxicity in an in vivo zebrafish model has shown that these compounds have little effect on organism development, even at high concentrations, and has uncovered a potential side effect through localization of fluorescent derivatives to zebrafish neuromast cells. Combined, these results further our understanding of the potential value of this lead series as development candidates against T. brucei.

Hit-to-lead development of the chamigrane endoperoxide merulin A for the treatment of African sleeping sickness.

BACKGROUND: Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is an infectious disease with a large global health burden occurring primarily in Central and Eastern Africa. Most current treatments have poor blood brain barrier (BBB) penetration, which prevent them from targeting the most lethal stage of the infection. In addition, current therapeutics suffer from a variety of limitations ranging from serious side effects to difficulties with treatment administration. Therefore it is of crucial importance to find new treatments that are safe, affordable, and effective against both sub-species of Trypanosoma brucei. METHODS: Semi-synthetic derivatization of the fungally-derived natural product merulin A (1) has led to the discovery of new development candidates for the protozoan parasite T. brucei, the causative agent of HAT. Creation of an initial SAR library based around the merulin scaffold revealed several key features required for activity, including the endoperoxide bridge, as well as one position suitable for further derivatization. Subsequent synthesis of a 20-membered analogue library, guided by the addition of acyl groups that improve the drug-like properties of the merulin A core, resulted in the development of compound 12 with an IC(50) of 60 nM against T. brucei, and a selectivity index greater than 300-fold against HeLa and immortalized glial cells. SIGNIFICANCE: We report the semi-synthetic optimization of the merulin class of endoperoxide natural products as development candidates against T. brucei. We have identified compounds with low nM antiparasitic activities and high selectivity indices against HeLa cells. These compounds can be produced economically in large quantities via a one step derivatization from the microbial fermentation broth isolate, making them encouraging lead candidates for further development.

Adenylate cyclases of Trypanosoma brucei inhibit the innate immune response of the host.

The parasite Trypanosoma brucei possesses a large family of transmembrane receptor-like adenylate cyclases. Activation of these enzymes requires the dimerization of the catalytic domain and typically occurs under stress. Using a dominant-negative strategy, we found that reducing adenylate cyclase activity by about 50% allowed trypanosome growth but reduced the parasite's ability to control the early innate immune defense of the host. Specifically, activation of trypanosome adenylate cyclase resulting from parasite phagocytosis by liver myeloid cells inhibited the synthesis of the trypanosome-controlling cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α through activation of protein kinase A in these cells. Thus, adenylate cyclase activity of lyzed trypanosomes favors early host colonization by live parasites. The role of adenylate cyclases at the host-parasite interface could explain the expansion and polymorphism of this gene family.

Leishmania major protein disulfide isomerase as a drug target: enzymatic and functional characterization.

Leishmaniasis is a major health problem worldwide and tools available for their control are limited. Effective vaccines are still lacking, drugs are toxic and expensive, and parasites develop resistance to chemotherapy. In this context, new antimicrobials are urgently needed to control the disease in both human and animal. Here, we report the enzymatic and functional characterization of a Leishmania virulence factor, Leishmania major Protein disulfide isomerase (LmPDI) that could constitute a potential drug target. LmPDI possesses domain structure organization similar to other PDI family members (a, a', b, b' and c domains), and it displays the three enzymatic and functional activities specific of PDI family members: isomerase, reductase and chaperone. These results suggest that LmPDI plays a key role in assisting Leishmania protein folding via its capacity to catalyze formation, breakage, and rearrangement of disulfide bonds in nascent polypeptides. Moreover, Bacitracin, a reductase activity inhibitor, and Ribostamycin, a chaperone activity inhibitor, were tested in LmPDI enzymatic assays and versus Leishmania promastigote in vitro cultures and Leishmania amastigote multiplication inside infected THP-1-derived macrophages. Bacitracin inhibited both isomerase and reductase activities, while Ribostamycin had no effect on the chaperone activity. Interestingly, Bacitracin blocked in vitro promastigote growth as well as amastigote multiplication inside macrophages with EC(50) values of 39 µM. These results suggest that LmPDI may constitute an interesting target for the development of new anti-Leishmania drugs.