Baseline pathological data of the wedge clam Donax trunculus from the Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean Basin).

In recent years, a collapse in Donax trunculus fishing yields has occurred in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean Basin). There is little information available on the impact disease may have had on D. trunculus populations. For the first time, a pathological survey was performed on the natural beds of the bivalve on the Campania and Lazio coasts, western Italy. Detected pathogens and related diseases were analysed, and their prevalence and mean intensity values were calculated. Viral particles, Chlamydia-like organisms, ciliates, coccidians, microcells and trematodes were observed. An unknown ciliate was linked to severe inflammatory and necrotic lesions in the digestive gland. Metacercariae of the trematode Postmonorchis sp. were also strongly represented in almost all samples, reaching high levels of infection; however, none of the pathogens described required the World Organisation for Animal Health to be notified. Initial results indicated that further surveys related to environmental data are necessary in order to assess the relevance of these early observations in managing the declining D. trunculus population in the Tyrrhenian Sea.

A mycobacterial disease is associated with the silent mass mortality of the pen shell Pinna nobilis along the Tyrrhenian coastline of Italy.

Disease is an increasing threat for marine bivalves worldwide. Recently, a mass mortality event (MME) impacting the bivalve Pinna nobilis was detected across a wide geographical area of the Spanish Mediterranean Sea and linked to a haplosporidian parasite. In 2017-2018, mass mortality events affecting the pen shell Pinna nobilis were recorded in two different regions of Italy, Campania and Sicily, in the Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean Sea). Histopathological and molecular examinations of specimens showed the presence of Haplosporidium sp. in only one specimen in one area. Conversely, in all of the surveyed moribund animals, strong inflammatory lesions at the level of connective tissue surrounding the digestive system and gonads and linked to the presence of intracellular Zhiel-Neelsen-positive bacteria were observed. Molecular analysis of all of the diseased specimens (13) confirmed the presence of a Mycobacterium. Blast analysis of the sequences from all of the areas revealed that they were grouped together with the human mycobacterium M. sherrisii close to the group including M. shigaense, M. lentiflavum and M. simiae. Based on pathological and molecular findings, it is proposed that a mycobacterial disease is associated with the mortality episodes of Pinna nobilis, indicating that, at this time, Haplosporidium sp. is not responsible for these events in Campanian and Sicilian waters.

Smart fusion vs. double scan: a comparison between two data-matching protocols for a computer guided implant planning.

AIM: To make a comparison between two different approaches of data matching during the preparation of a computer guided implant planning. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Electronic and manual literature searches were performed to collect information about the double-scan protocol and the smart fusion protocol. The two systems were then tested to identify or confirm their advantages and disadvantages. RESULTS: The double scan protocol is a reliable and well-known process to obtain a fusion between the anatomical data (CBCT) and the prosthetic data (radiographic template). It is possible to use this protocol both in dentate and edentulous patients. The newly developed smart fusion technique offers the possibility to superimpose the anatomical data (CBCT) onto the prosthetic data (cast + wax-up scan) without the production of a radiographic template. This system is still being tested by the clinicians even though dental manufacturers already consider it as the best solution for the dentate patients selected for a static computer guided implant surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Smart fusion protocol offers a reasonable time and cost reduction even though its application is limited to dentate patients. A noticeable drawback of the workflow is the matching step: often a manual intervention is necessary to obtain a correct alignment of the CBCT data with the lab scan of the cast. This issue is partially due to the use of non-volume stable materials during the preparation of the cast. Future improvements could be made by combining CBCT data with direct optical scans of patient dental arches in order to create the so-called 'virtual patient'.

A novel workflow for computer guided implant surgery matching digital dental casts and CBCT scan.

Nowadays computer-guided "flap-less" surgery for implant placement using stereolithographic tem-plates is gaining popularity among clinicians and patients. The advantages of this surgical protocol are its minimally invasive nature, accuracy of implant placement, predictability, less post-surgical discomfort and reduced time required for definitive rehabilitation. Aim of this work is to describe a new protocol (Smart Fusion by Nobel Biocare), thanks to which is now possible to do a mini-invasive static guided implant surgery, in partially edentulous patients with at least 6 remaining teeth, without the use of a radiographic guide. This is possible thanks to a procedure named surface mapping based on the matching between numerous points on the surface of patient's dental casts and the corresponding anatomical surface points in the CBCT data. The full protocol is examined focusing the attention on the clinical and laboratory procedures. CONCLUSIONS: Also with some critical points and needing an adequate learning curve, this protocol allows to select the ideal implant position in depth, inclination and mesio-distal distance between natural teeth and or other implants enabling a very safe and predictable rehabilitation compared with conventional surgery. It represents a good tool for the best compromise between anatomy, function and aesthetic, able to guarantee better results in all clinical situations.

Comparative pathology in bivalves: Aetiological agents and disease processes.

Comparative pathology as a scientific discipline studies animal diseases in relation to their aetiology, pathogenesis and prognosis. Among the main aspects of this discipline, regressive changes, host defense responses with pathological implications and progressive changes, represent the majority of the possible responses of cells and tissues to pathogens and exposure to chemicals. One of the most persistent issues in the field of invertebrate pathology is the variability in terminology and definition, which has led to confusion in scientific communication. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the pathological basis of bivalve disease (defensive, regressive and progressive phenomena) and contribute to the standardised terminology for bivalve molluscan disease in the context of comparative pathology.

Quantitative histopathology of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis L.) exposed to the harmful dinoflagellate Ostreopsis cf. ovata.

Ostreopsis cf. ovata is a benthic dinoflagellate that produces palytoxin-like compounds that adversely affect both marine vertebrates and invertebrates and are reported to be responsible for human intoxication in aerosol form. In this work, a histopathological analysis accompanied by quantitative evaluation of tissue injury in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) exposed to O. cf. ovata cells under natural and experimental conditions, provided baseline data on the health status of the mussels in terms of defensive and regressive pathological changes. We recorded a total of 15 health parameters in the digestive system, muscle, kidney and gills in mussels exposed to O. cf. ovata both in the laboratory and at sea. Animals exposed to different concentrations of O. cf. ovata cells (300, 500 and 1000cellsml(-)(1)) for 48h showed activation of the inflammatory response, which increased with the cell concentration, mainly characterized by haemocyte aggregates actively enclosing the algae, while mussel mortality was also recorded in some cases. Moreover the use of image analysis for the evaluation of digestive tubule damage revealed a pronounced increase in the lumen in terms of its area, perimeter and circularity, with a shift in a high percentage of tubules from an adsorbing profile to an atrophic profile. Animals collected from the natural environment during a summer bloom of O. cf. ovata in the Gulf of Naples (Italy) showed comparable lesions in terms of types and severity. This is the first quantitative study assessing damage to the digestive epithelia in terms of lumen modifications in mussels exposed to O. cf. ovata. The presented methodology provides a new technique for automating the evaluation of epithelial tubule modifications. Our results highlight the importance of monitoring the presence of O. cf. ovata in this area, taking into account the effects on the residing marine species.

Transcrestal guided sinus lift without grafting materials: a 36 months clinical prospective study.

PURPOSE: This study describes the ability to perform a technique for bone regeneration in maxillary posterior deficit (TGSL) without the use of bone grafting materials using a highly minimally invasive protocol. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixty six implants have been inserted in the sinus floor of a total of 39 patients through the transcrestal guided sinus lift technique (TGSL). All patients have been followed for at least three years in function. The drilling protocol was adapted on the basis of bone density of each implant site to achieve a torque between 45 and 55 Ncm. Healing titanium abutments tightened to 35 Ncm have been used. A CAD/CAM metal ceramics final prosthetic restoration has been generated a six months after the tissues healing and the provisional functionalization of the occlusion. Survival rate of implants and prostheses, biological and biomechanical complications, changes in marginal bone levels, and total height of alveolar crest bone before and after surgery have been evaluate and measured by the results obtained in this prospective study. It was also measured the periodontal parameters as well as levels of perception of pain by the patient during the entire recovery period. RESULTS: The result of the data of follow-up was 41.96 (24 to 36) months. Cumulative implant survival was 98.53% at 3 years. There were no biological and mechanical complications and there were no prosthetic failures during the whole period of follow-up. The Marginal Bone Loss (MBL) average during the first year of operation was from 0.33 to 0.36 mm, while the 3-year follow-up, the MBL average was 0.51 to 0.29 mm. The average of residual bone height of alveolar ridge before treatment was 6.7 to 1.6 mm (range 5.1 to 9.2 mm), while the average bone height was gained 6,4 - 1.6 mm (range 3.2 to 8.1 mm). All patients reported lower pain levels and found to have normal periodontal parameters. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that the use of guided surgery to perform transcrestal maxillary sinus lift to increase the sub-antral crestal height is a minimally invasive technique of success for the short and medium-term of follow-up, thus avoiding the extended treatment time and reducing the morbidity associated with the lifting of the floor of the maxillary sinus with traditional technique using bone grafting materials. Furthermore, this protocol without the use of graft materials does not vary the final outcome that have demonstrated the presence of newly formed bone around implants offering always predictable results, and giving a further reduction in the costs of the procedure rehabilitation.

Gorgonian disease outbreak in the Gulf of Naples: pathology reveals cyanobacterial infection linked to elevated sea temperatures.

In recent years, mass mortality events of benthic invertebrates in the Mediterranean Sea have been documented to coincide with the increased seawater temperatures associated with global climate change. Following a disease outbreak in gorgonians during the summer seasons of 2008 and 2009 in the Gulf of Naples (Tyrrhenian Sea), we conducted gross and microscopic analyses of healthy and diseased specimens of Eunicella cavolinii and E. singularis using both light and electron microscopy (SEM). Macroscopically, diseased colonies exhibited evident tissue thinning, and dead colonies showed a complete loss of polyps and coenenchyme, exposing their skeletons to settlement by fouling organisms. Histopathology revealed chronic inflammatory lesions at the polyp and axial level, characterized by amoebocyte infiltration of tissue accompanied by new apposition of melanin/gorgonin sheets. We interpreted this response as a defense against different kinds of pathogens-identified as mainly a heterogeneous consortium of filamentous cyanobacteria-and which gradually led to enlargement and hardening of the coral axis, which resembled a wood-like structure at the final stage of the disease. These processes elicited the formation of multiple inflammatory nodules and capsules, some of which were macroscopically visible. A parallel 16S rRNA and ITS analysis of the diseased tissue identified Synechococcus, Arthrospira and other uncultured cyanobacteria grouped within the Oscillatoriales. These results suggest that a cyanobacterial consortium is involved in the pathogenesis of the inflammatory disease leading to the mortality of Gorgoniaceae in the area. Finally, there were anomalously high temperatures (up to 25°C) between 10 and 20 m depth during the sampling period, particularly in June 2009. This supports the hypothesis that the coral skeleton may serve as a reservoir for the pathogens in cooler seasons, with warmer conditions leading to pathogen reactivation and recurring mortality events.

Full rehabilitation with nobel clinician(®) and procera implant bridge(®): case report.

Implant surgery has been changing in different ways following improvements of computer technologies. Since its beginning, according to the original procedures of Branemårk system implants, guide-lines in implants-supported prosthetic rehabilitation have been founding on the placement of fixtures in a fairly upright position, after maxillary sinus floor elevation; while in the case of interforaminal rehabilitation, an upright distal implant may need to be placed anterior to the mental foramina without nerve damage (although the consequence would have been bilateral cantilevers to provide good chewing capacity). Some authors have proposed engaging the molar/tuberosity area: Bahat and Venturelli demonstrated these areas reliable and predictable alternative to distal cantilever prostheses or sinus elevation procedures. In recent years, the immediate loading of tilted implants with a provisional restoration has been proposed for the treatment of the atrophic maxilla. Tilted posterior implants in either arches could avoid (cantilever length) and provide to a better load distribution. Further studies have showed excellent outcomes for both tilted and axial implants; indeed this protocol allows to use longer implants, improve bone anchorage and avoid bone grafting procedures. Malò at al., in a retrospective clinical study, showed important results using two posterior tilted implants and two anterior non-tilted ones in the so-called All-on-four technique (Nobel Biocare, Göteborg, Sweden). Instead of the great loss of bone (amount and quality) in long-term edentuly the clinically documented computer-guided implantology software is able, through posterior tilted implants, to improve load distribution. Many authors have reported reduced surgical invasion (sinus grafting surgery is needless), shorter treatment time, lower cost, natural aesthetic profiles and functional bite.

Postmonorchis sp. inq. (Digenea: Monorchiidae) metacercariae infecting natural beds of wedge clam Donax trunculus in Italy.

The wedge clam Donax trunculus Linnaeus, 1758 is one of the most common bivalve molluscs inhabiting the sandy shores of the Mediterranean Sea and is considered an important commercial resource. In this study, we report the first molecular, morphological and histopathological descriptions of metacercariae from a trematode belonging to the genus Postmonorchis (Digenea: Monorchiidae) that infects D. trunculus in natural beds of the Italian Tyrrhenian coast (Campania, Lazio and Tuscany). Morphological analysis of the parasite revealed a combination of features that exist in the 3 previously identified species of Postmonorchis, viz. P. donacis, P. variabilis and P. orthopristis, with the addition of new, distinctive morphological characteristics. The pathogen exhibited a predilection for the gill; however, it was also present in the labial palp and mantle in addition to the gut, kidney epithelium and foot. The inflammatory response was characterised by either a focal or diffuse haemocyte infiltration followed by the formation of multiple, large multi-layered capsules associated with tissue destruction. The prevalence of the pathogen ranged from 75 to 100%, while the infection intensity fluctuated among the study areas. Further studies regarding the life cycle of this parasite and the identification of other larval and adult stages and their respective hosts may confirm the identification of a new species of Postmonorchis that infects wedge clams in Mediterranean waters. The study of the parasite is completed by molecular analysis of the ITS1 and ITS2 rDNA sequences.

Morphological features of the inflammatory response in molluscs.

Over the last few years, there has been a large increase in studying the biology and pathology of molluscs, predominantly in addressing the molecular patterns involved in their immune-mediated and inflammatory responses. Conversely, the literature-based diagnostic criteria concerning the morphology of the above phenomena still involves pathogenetic confusion and conflicting terminology. A comparison of bibliographic resources, such as the Abridged Glossary of Terms Used in Invertebrate Pathology and the National Status manual for molluscan histopathological examination and analysis from the NOAA, have revealed variability in the definitions of superimposable lesions, emphasising the need for further efforts in establishing standard terminology and methodologies in this field of study. This review suggests some possible solutions for overcoming the use of parallel terminologies in diagnosing inflammation in molluscs and also highlights conflicting features requiring further discussion.

Computer-assisted virtual treatment planning combined with flapless surgery and immediate loading in the rehabilitation of partial edentulies.

It has been suggested that for success with immediate loaded dental implants it is necessary that, prior to their placement, bone quality and quantity as well as the biomechanical environment in which the implants are to function be evaluated.However, conventional techniques currently used for immediate implant placement lack sufficient precision and are usually accomplished by opening flap procedures. Nowadays computer-guided flapless surgery for implant placement using stereolithographic templates is gaining popularity among clinicians and patients. The advantages of this surgical protocol are its minimally invasive nature, accuracy of implant placement, predictability, less post-surgical disconfort and reduced time required for definitive rehabilitation. The introduction of digital planning programs has made it possible to place dental implants in preplanned positions and being immediately functionally loaded by using prefabricated prostheses. The surgical guide is used, infact, to develop a master model and fabricate the provisional bridge that will be secured to the implants immediately after their placement using the guided surgery template. In this way patients are able to achieve, in the same day of the surgery, a comfortable fixed rehabilitation needing only minor occlusal adjustments. Job S. et al during the three-month period, have demonstrated that the average reduction of crestal bone height around the implants placed with flapless surgery (0.06 mm) is not statistically significant, while the average reduction of crestal bone height around the implants placed using flap surgery (0.4 mm) is statistically significant, concluding that the use of stereolithographic appliances in accordance with flapless surgery makes immediate placement of the implants more predictable. However, the documentation of this technique in partial rehabilitations is limited. PURPOSE of this paper is to report the benefit of sophisticated pre-operative diagnostic implant planning and a flapless surgical approach with immediate loading in the rehabilitation of partial edentulies.

Rationale for tilted implants: FEA considerations and clinical reports.

The prevalence of the elderly population, as well as life expectancy, increased in the final decades of the 20th century, as described in the World Health Organization 2004 Annual Report. The edentulous condition therefore has a negative impact on the oral health-related quality of life. Patients wearing complete dentures for many years infact, and especially in the mandible, are often unsatisfied because of the instability of the prosthesis during speaking and eating. To date dental implant treatment is well documented as a predictable treatment for partial or complete edentulism. On the other hand the rehabilitation of atrophied edentulous arches with endosseous implants (> 10 mm) in the posterior regions is often associated with anatomic problems such as bone resorption, poor bone quality, mandibular canal, and the presence of maxillary sinuses. Different procedures have been proposed to overcome these anatomic limitations. The use of tilted implants parallel to the anterior wall of the maxillary sinus or the mental foramen/inferior alveolar nerve has been proposed as a conservative solution for the treatment of the atrophic edentulous maxilla. Aim of this study was to describe, through a detailed literature review, the clinical and biomechanical rationale for tilting implants and to evaluate the long-term prognosis of immediately loaded full fixed prostheses for the treatment of edentulous patients (#35) with extreme bone atrophy rehabilited with both axial (#70) and tilted (#70) implants from 2008 to 2010. The results of the present study would suggest that this new surgical technique may reduce patient morbidity and extend the indications for immediate loading full fixed rehabilitations. This improves the predictability of treatment goal, allows for a better risk management, and provides more individual information for the patient. These are the most important aspects of this technology, which may contribute to establish higher-quality standards in implantology.

Flapless Transcrestal Maxillary Sinus Floor Elevation: computer guided implant surgery combined with expanding-condensing osteotomes protocol.

PURPOSE: A novel technique for transcrestal guided sinus lift elevation (TGSL), is described underlining the step by step surgical protocol. MATERIALS AND METHODS: TGSL modified osteotome technique was planned by the NobelProcera(®) Software Planning Programm (Nobel Guide, Nobel Biocare AB) and performed by stereolitographic template. The depth of the planned osteotomy was determined precisely via cross-sectional images of the elevation site to facilitate puncture of the bony sinus floor without risk of perforation of the adherent sinus membrane. A customized drilling-osteotome protocol is used to raise the Schneiderian membrane to the final implant length. RESULTS: The sinus membrane is successfully elevated in all sites without any iatrogenic perforation. CONCLUSIONS: The TGSL modified osteotome technique may provide a new option for minimally invasive transcrestal sinus surgery and may represent a safe method to increase bone volume in the atrophic posterior maxilla. The results of the present study would suggest that this new surgical technique may reduce patient morbidity and extend the indications for transcrestal maxillary sinus floor elevation.

Immediate loading of four implants (BTLock(®)) in the maxilla and provisional restoration with guide-surgery (SimPlant, Materialise(®)): case report.

The severe atrophy of the jaws are a challenging therapeutic problem, since the increase in bone is necessary to allow the placement of a sufficient number of implants. Combining immediate functionalization with the concept of guided surgery they combine the advantages offered by the innovative surgical and prosthetic implant technique (All-on-Four(®)) with those of computer-assisted planning in cases of severe bone atrophy. The method used in this case report, combines these two concepts in a surgical and prosthetic protocol safe and effective for the immediate function of 4 implants to support a fixed prosthesis in completely edentulous subjects. The integration of technology with immediate function with the concept of computer-guided surgery for implant placement and rehabilitation of completely edentulous jaws is now a predictable treatment modality with implant survival comparable to the traditional protocols.

Mini-invasive impression techniques in fixed prothesis: an alternative to traditional procedures.

The object of our work is the illustration of an alternative technique in the impress survey in fixed prosthesis. This method conceived from Doctor Casartelli, allowed us to utilize this technology in the day-to-day activity eliminating also the anaesthetic use, so give the possibility to operate patients with anticoagulant therapy.Moreover the mini-invasive techniques allow a lowering recessions, best tolerability from the patients, less pain and postoperative inflammation, "restitutio ad integrum" of tissue without morphological modifications.

Clinical indications, advantages and limits of the expansion-condensing osteotomes technique for the creation of implant bed.

The "screw shaped" expansion-condenser are hand instruments that were introduced for the first time at the end of the 70' in order to improve bone density before the positioning of a dental implant. Thanks to these hand instruments it is possibile to compact the bone apically and along the walls of the implant bed (Fig. 3) improving a lot the bone density and the primary stability of the implant even in situations where the starting bone quality is low (es. D3-D4 as in the classification y Lekholm and Zarb 1985) or in cases of severe bone atrophy. Allowing a manageable raising of the shnaiderian membrane through trans-alveolar way, this technique avoids in many cases the necessity to have recourse to the realisation of bone vestibular "gates" when it comes to the techniques of the big sinus lift. The knoledge of the bone visco-elastic and hystologic properties together with the maximum respect of the surgical protocol allows us to obtein % of success superior than traditional surgical protocol in D3-D4 bone class.

Control and reduction of peak temperature in self-curing resins.

INTRODUCTION.: The aim of this experimental study was to reduce the exothermic reaction during curing of the resins to cold. The significant exotherm generated by the reaction of polymerization of the resin curing involves many clinical complications including the high risk of necrosis against tooth. MATERIAL AND METHODS.: They were used four different types of self curing resins all based on methyl methacrylate, Jet Kit, Major Dentin, Dura Lay, Temporary Cold. The reaction of polymerization of the resins was done in Teflon pans and was monitored by a thermocouple which recorded the highest level reached by each temperature resin with and without additive. The polymerization reaction took place for each resin in the presence of an essential oil, the terpinolene, which acted as a "chain transfer" and different temperatures were recorded. RESULTS.: Resins Dura Lay and Jet kit showed a reduction of very high temperature in the presence of terpinolene, with a statistically significant difference compared to the same reaction without terpinolene Major resin dentin in the presence of the additive has reduced by 8.4°C peak temperature. Resin Temporary Cold has showed benefits with respect to peak temperature, but the reaction was much more 'consistent presence of the additive. DISCUSSION.: The system through which the chain transfer acts to lower the temperature of the reaction is that of chain transfer. Namely that interfere with the reaction of the polymer chains, by transferring these acrylic radicals are no longer active, ie, no longer able to bind to other monomer units, thus avoiding the excessive growth of macromolecules which are those that determine the temperature rise. This leads to the formation of more polymer chains with lower molecular weight.

Osteonecrosis caused by Bisphosphonates: a clinical case.

The osteonecrosis of the maxillares caused by bisphosphonates (OMB) either wrongly known or not reconised in earlier times became nowadays very important among the dentists and maxillo-facials surgeons because of the potential serious consequences that might bring in the oral cave of the patients, who are suffering already for their base condition. The goal of our work was to verify if a deep treatment and an attentive observation with a close follow-up can bring to the resolution of serious cases of ostenecrosis of the maxillares by bisphosphonantes. Although without a statistic value our case report put the basis for a chance to execute wider casistic studies.

Histological, histochemical and morphometric changes of splenic melanomacrophage centers (SMMCs) in Sparicotyle-infected cultured sea breams (Sparus aurata).

Diseases caused by parasites are much more frequently described in cultured fish, which suffer from artificial conditions and numerous stress factors. This study investigates the histological, histochemical and morphometric modifications of splenic melanomacrophage centers (SMMCs) infected by Sparicotyle chrisophrii (Monogenea, ectoparasite of the gills) in sea breams (Sparus aurata), cultured in floating cages in the Gulf of Gaeta (Italy). Infected fish swam near the water surface, showing severe signs of anemia. Several spleens were collected from both healthy and dead fish (70-100 gr. body weight). A spleen histopathology was evaluated by using traditional stainings, such as Haematoxylin and Eosin (HE), Periodic Acid-Schiff reaction (PAS), Perl's reaction for haemosiderin and Schmorl's reaction for lipofuscins. Furthermore, SMMCs morphometry was performed on PAS-stained sections to study 7 morphometric parameters [Mean SMMCs profile area (MPA), Mean SMMCs maximum diameter (Media), Mean SMMCs minimum diameter (media), Mean SMMCs diameter (Dia), Mean SMMCs Perimeter (P), Mean SMMCs Form Factor (FF) and Mean SMMCs number per square millimeter of spleen tissue (MN)]. A light microscope of HE stained sections of spleen revealed a dramatic increase in the size and number of SMMCs in parasitized animals. Morphometric data illustrated statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) of all studied parameters between healthy and diseased fish. This study emphasizes the importance of using histopathological investigations to unravel the complex biological host/parasite interaction, which results in systemic lesions affecting reared marine species.