All-Trans Retinoic Acid Effect on Candida albicans Growth and Biofilm Formation.

Candida albicans (C. albicans) is the most common fungal pathogen causing recurrent mucosal and life-threatening systemic infections. The ability to switch from yeast to hyphae and produce biofilm are the key virulence determinants of this fungus. In fact, Candida biofilms on medical devices represent the major risk factor for nosocomial bloodstream infections. Novel antifungal strategies are required given the severity of systemic candidiasis, especially in immunocompromised patients, and the lack of effective anti-biofilm treatments. Retinoids have gained attention recently due to their antifungal properties. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The present study aimed at evaluating the in vitro effects of different concentrations (300 to 18.75 µg/mL) of All-trans Retinoic Acid (ATRA), a vitamin A metabolite, on Candida growth and biofilm formation. RESULTS: ATRA completely inhibited the fungal growth, by acting as both fungicidal (at 300 µg/mL) and fungistatic (at 150 µg/mL) agent. Furthermore, ATRA was found to negatively affect Candida biofilm formation in terms of biomass, metabolic activity and morphology, in a dose-dependent manner, and intriguingly, its efficacy was as that of amphotericin B (AmB) (2-0.12 µg/mL). Additionally, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis showed that at 300 µg/mL ATRA induced plasma membrane damage in Candida cells, confirming its direct toxic effect against the fungus. CONCLUSION: Altogether, the results suggest that ATRA has a potential for novel antifungal strategies aimed at preventing and controlling biofilm-associated Candida infections.

Retinoids in Fungal Infections: From Bench to Bedside.

Retinoids-a class of chemical compounds derived from vitamin A or chemically related to it-are used especially in dermatology, oncohematology and infectious diseases. It has been shown that retinoids-from their first generation-exert a potent antimicrobial activity against a wide range of pathogens, including bacteria, fungi and viruses. In this review, we summarize current evidence on retinoids' efficacy as antifungal agents. Studies were identified by searching electronic databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, Cochrane, Trials.gov) and reference lists of respective articles from 1946 to today. Only articles published in the English language were included. A total of thirty-nine articles were found according to the criteria. In this regard, to date, In vitro and In vivo studies have demonstrated the efficacy of retinoids against a broad-spectrum of human opportunistic fungal pathogens, including yeast fungi that normally colonize the skin and mucosal surfaces of humans such as Candida spp., Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and Malassezia furfur, as well as environmental moulds such as Aspergillus spp., Fonsecae monofora and many species of dermatophytes associated with fungal infections both in humans and animals. Notwithstanding a lack of double-blind clinical trials, the efficacy, tolerability and safety profile of retinoids have been demonstrated against localized and systemic fungal infections.

A new qualitative RT-PCR assay detecting SARS-CoV-2.

The world is facing an exceptional pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2. To allow the diagnosis of COVID-19 infections, several assays based on the real-time PCR technique have been proposed. The requests for diagnosis are such that it was immediately clear that the choice of the most suitable method for each microbiology laboratory had to be based, on the one hand, on the availability of materials, and on the other hand, on the personnel and training priorities for this activity. Unfortunately, due to high demand, the shortage of commercial diagnostic kits has also become a major problem. To overcome these critical issues, we have developed a new qualitative RT-PCR probe. Our system detects three genes-RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), envelope (E) and nucleocapsid (N)-and uses the ß-actin gene as an endogenous internal control. The results from our assay are in complete agreement with the results obtained using a commercially available kit, except for two samples that did not pass the endogenous internal control. The coincidence rate was 0.96. The LoD of our assay was 140 cp/reaction for N and 14 cp/reaction for RdRp and E. Our kit was designed to be open, either for the nucleic acid extraction step or for the RT-PCR assay, and to be carried out on several instruments. Therefore, it is free from the industrial production logics of closed systems, and conversely, it is hypothetically available for distribution in large quantities to any microbiological laboratory. The kit is currently distributed worldwide (called MOLgen-COVID-19; Adaltis). A new version of the kit for detecting the S gene is also available.

Evidence of the pathogenic HERV-W envelope expression in T lymphocytes in association with the respiratory outcome of COVID-19 patients.

BACKGROUND: Despite an impressive effort in clinical research, no standard therapeutic approach for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients has been established, highlighting the need to identify early biomarkers for predicting disease progression and new therapeutic interventions for patient management. The present study aimed to evaluate the involvement of the human endogenous retrovirus -W envelope (HERV-W ENV) in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection considering recent findings that HERVs are activated in response to infectious agents and lead to various immunopathological effects. We analysed HERV-W ENV expression in blood cells of COVID-19 patients in correlation with clinical characteristics and have discussed its potential role in the outcome of the disease. METHODS: We analysed HERV-W ENV expression in blood samples of COVID-19 patients and healthy donors by flow cytometry and quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR analysis, and evaluated its correlation with clinical signs, inflammatory markers, cytokine expression, and disease progression. FINDINGS: HERV-W ENV was highly expressed in the leukocytes of COVID-19 patients but not in those of healthy donors. Its expression correlated with the markers of T-cell differentiation and exhaustion and blood cytokine levels. The percentage of HERV-W ENV-positive lymphocytes correlated with inflammatory markers and pneumonia severity in COVID-19 patients. Notably, HERV-W ENV expression reflects the respiratory outcome of patients during hospitalization. INTERPRETATION: Given the known immuno- and neuro-pathogenicity of HERV-W ENV protein, it could promote certain pathogenic features of COVID-19 and therefore serve as a biomarker to predict clinical progression of disease and open to further studies for therapeutic intervention. FUNDING: Information available at the end of the manuscript.

Trifarotene: A Current Review and Perspectives in Dermatology.

Retinoids have numerous applications in inflammatory, dyskeratotic, and oncohematology diseases. Retinoids have now reached the fourth generation, progressively reducing toxicity whilst increasing their efficacy. Trifarotene is a new fourth-generation retinoid with a selective action on RAR-γ. In this review, we reported the trials-both concluded and in progress-including the use of trifarotene in dermatological diseases. Studies were identified by searching electronic databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, Cochrane, Trials.gov) from 2012 to today and reference lists of respective articles. Only articles published in English language were included. Randomized trials evaluating trifarotene tolerability, safety, and efficacy in congenital ichthyosis and acne have demonstrated great results and mild side effects, leading to the approval by the FDA of trifarotene for the treatment of lamellar ichthyosis in 2014, and of acne vulgaris in October 2019. No high-quality randomized clinical trials have evaluated the treatment of primary cutaneous lymphomas with trifarotene. Finally, we are hypothesizing future perspectives in the treatment of non-melanoma skin cancers, fungal infections, photoaging, and hand-foot skin reactions with trifarotene.

Antifungal Effect of All-trans Retinoic Acid against Aspergillus fumigatus In Vitro and in a Pulmonary Aspergillosis In Vivo Model.

Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common opportunistic fungal pathogen and causes invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA), with high mortality among immunosuppressed patients. The fungistatic activity of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) has been recently described in vitro We evaluated the efficacy of ATRA in vivo and its potential synergistic interaction with other antifungal drugs. A rat model of IPA and in vitro experiments were performed to assess the efficacy of ATRA against Aspergillus in association with classical antifungal drugs and in silico studies used to clarify its mechanism of action. ATRA (0.5 and 1 mM) displayed a strong fungistatic activity in Aspergillus cultures, while at lower concentrations, synergistically potentiated fungistatic efficacy of subinhibitory concentration of amphotericin B (AmB) and posaconazole (POS). ATRA also enhanced macrophagic phagocytosis of conidia. In a rat model of IPA, ATRA reduced mortality similarly to posaconazole. Fungistatic efficacy of ATRA alone and synergistically with other antifungal drugs was documented in vitro, likely by inhibiting fungal heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) expression and Hsp90-related genes. ATRA treatment reduced mortality in a model of IPA in vivo Those findings suggest ATRA as a suitable fungistatic agent that can also reduce dosage and adverse reactions of classical antifungal drugs and add to the development of new therapeutic strategies against IPA and systemic fungal infections.

Antifungal activity of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae) against Trichophyton rubrum occurs through molecular interaction with fungal Hsp90.

INTRODUCTION: Dermatophytosis is a superficial fungal infection limited to the stratum corneum of the epidermis, or to the hair and nails, and constitutes an important public health problem because of its high prevalence and associated morbidity. Dermatophyte fungi, especially 2 species, Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes, are the predominant pathogens. Topical antifungal drugs, mainly azoles or allyamines, are currently used for the treatment of dermatophytoses, although in some cases, such as in nail and hair involvement, systemic treatment is required. However, therapeutic efficacy of current antifungal agents can be limited by their side effects, costs, and the emergence of drug resistance among fungi. Plant extracts represent a potential source of active antimicrobial agents, due to the presence of a variety of chemical bioactive compounds. In the present work, we evaluated in silico and in vitro the antifungal activity of an extract of the medicinal plant Cardiospermum halicacabum against T. rubrum suggesting a potential interaction with Hsp90 as playing an important role in both pathogenicity and drug susceptibility of T. rubrum. METHODS: We investigated in vitro the effect of different concentrations of C. halicacabum (from 500 to 31.25 µg) against a clinical isolate of T. rubrum. Furthermore, using a computational assessment, the interaction between different C. halicacabum active compounds and the fungal Hsp90 was also investigated. RESULTS: Our results indicate a clear-cut antifungal activity of the total plant extract at the highest concentrations (500 and 250 µg). Among all tested C. halicacabum compounds, the luteolin and rutin molecules have been identified in silico as the most important potential inhibitors of Hsp90. Based on these data, luteolin and rutin were also individually assessed for their antifungal activity. Results demonstrate that both substances display an antifungal effect, even if lower than that of the total plant extract. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate a strong fungistatic effect of C. halicacabum against T. rubrum, suggesting its potential therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of dermatophytoses. Additionally, C. halicacabum compounds, and particularly luteolin and rutin, are all possible Hsp90 interactors, explaining their fungistatic activity.

Human dendritic cells following Aspergillus fumigatus infection express the CCR7 receptor and a differential pattern of interleukin-12 (IL-12), IL-23, and IL-27 cytokines, which lead to a Th1 response.

Aspergillus fumigatus is the most prevalent airborne fungal pathogen and causes fatal invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients. Given the essential role of dendritic cells (DC) in initiating and regulating immune responses, we investigated the impact of A. fumigatus conidial infection on human DC. A. fumigatus conidia were rapidly internalized and induced the release of tumor necrosis factor alpha within the first 8 h. After A. fumigatus infection, the majority of DC underwent full maturation, although CCR7 expression was observed only in DC that had internalized the conidia. Additionally, the analysis of regulatory cytokines showed that infected DC simultaneously produced interleukin-12p70 (IL-12p70) and significant amounts of IL-10. IL-10 neutralization was not able to further increase IL-12p70 production from infected DC. Whereas the central role of IL-12 in the generation of Th1 cells has long been appreciated, recently two other members of the IL-12 family, IL-23 and IL-27, were reported to play important roles in the regulation of gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production from naïve and memory T cells. A. fumigatus-infected DC were also able to express high levels of IL-23p19 and low levels of IL-27p28 at later stages of infection. According to this expression pattern, A. fumigatus-infected DC were able to prime IFN-gamma production of naïve T cells. Thus, this study on the expression of the new IL-12 family members controlling the Th1 response sheds light on a novel aspect of the contribution of DC to anti-Aspergillus immunity.

Thymosin alpha 1 activates dendritic cells for antifungal Th1 resistance through toll-like receptor signaling.

Dendritic cells (DCs) show a remarkable functional plasticity in the recognition of Aspergillus fumigatus and orchestrate the antifungal immune resistance in the lungs. Here, we show that thymosin alpha 1, a naturally occurring thymic peptide, induces functional maturation and interleukin-12 production by fungus-pulsed DCs through the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase/nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB-dependent pathway. This occurs by signaling through the myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent pathway, involving distinct Toll-like receptors. In vivo, the synthetic peptide activates T-helper (Th) cell 1-dependent antifungal immunity, accelerates myeloid cell recovery, and protects highly susceptible mice that received hematopoietic transplants from aspergillosis. By revealing the unexpected activity of an old molecule, our finding provides the rationale for its therapeutic utility and qualify the synthetic peptide as a candidate adjuvant promoting the coordinated activation of the innate and adaptive Th immunity to the fungus.

Vaccination of mice against invasive aspergillosis with recombinant Aspergillus proteins and CpG oligodeoxynucleotides as adjuvants.

In a murine model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis, dendritic cells (DCs) pulsed with Aspergillus antigens induced the activation of CD4(+) Th1 cells capable of conferring resistance to the infection. Here we show that the combined, local delivery of unmethylated CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) and the Asp f 16 Aspergillus allergen resulted in the functional maturation and activation of airway DCs capable of inducing Th1 priming and resistance to the fungus. Therefore, ODNs act as a potent adjuvant for the vaccine-induced protection against the fungus by promoting dominant Th1 response to Aspergillus antigens and allergens.

Dendritic cells transport conidia and hyphae of Aspergillus fumigatus from the airways to the draining lymph nodes and initiate disparate Th responses to the fungus.

Aspergilli are respiratory pathogens and pulmonary infections are usually acquired through the inhalation of conidia, able to reach small airways and the alveolar space where the impaired host defense mechanisms allow hyphal germination and subsequent tissue invasion. The invasive pulmonary aspergillosis is the most common manifestation of Aspergillus fumigatus infection in immunocompromised patients and is characterized by hyphal invasion and destruction of pulmonary tissue. A Th1/Th2 dysregulation and a switch to a Th2 immune response may contribute to the development and unfavorable outcome of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Dendritic cells (DC) have a primary role in surveillance for pathogens at the mucosal surfaces and are recognized as the initiators of immune responses to them. In the present study, we assessed the functional activity of pulmonary DC in response to A. fumigatus conidia and hyphae, both in vitro and in vivo. We analyzed mechanisms and receptors for phagocytosis by DC as well as DC migration, maturation, and Th priming in vivo upon exposure to either form of the fungus. We found a remarkable functional plasticity of DC in response to the different forms of the fungus, as pulmonary DC were able to: 1) internalize conidia and hyphae of A. fumigatus through distinct phagocytic mechanisms and recognition receptors; 2) discriminate between the different forms in terms of cytokine production; 3) undergo functional maturation upon migration to the draining lymph nodes and spleens; and 4) instruct local and peripheral Th cell reactivity to the fungus.