Macronutrient intake and outcomes of ICU patients with refeeding hypophosphatemia.

BACKGROUND: Normocaloric vs. calorie-restricted feeding in Intensive Care Unit (ICU) patients with refeeding hypophosphatemia (RH) is associated with increased mortality rates. Until now, only total energy provision has been studied. Data on individual macronutrients (proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates) and clinical outcomes are lacking. This study evaluates associations between macronutrient intake among RH patients during the first week of ICU admission and clinical outcomes. METHODS: A single-centre retrospective observational cohort study was conducted among prolonged mechanically ventilated RH ICU patients. The primary outcome was the association of separate macronutrient intakes during the first week of ICU admission with 6-month mortality, adjusted for relevant variables. Other parameters included ICU-, hospital- and 3-month mortality, mechanical ventilation duration and length of ICU and hospital stay. Macronutrient intakes were subsequently analyzed during day 1-3 and day 4-7 of ICU admission. RESULTS: In total, 178 RH patients were included. Six-month all-cause mortality was 29.8%. Higher protein intake during days 1-3 of ICU admission (>0.71 g/kg∗day; HR 2.224, 95%CI 1.261-3.923, p = 0.006), higher age (HR 1.040, 95%CI 1.015-1.066, p = 0.002) and higher APACHE II scores on ICU admission (HR 1.086, 95%CI 1.034-1.140, p = 0.001) were associated with increased 6-month mortality. No differences in other outcomes were observed. CONCLUSION: High protein - not carbohydrate or lipid - intake during the first three days of ICU admission in patients with RH is associated with increased 6-month mortality, but not short-term outcomes. We hypothesize a time-dependent and dose-response relationship between protein intake and mortality in refeeding hypophosphatemia ICU patients, although additional (randomized controlled) studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis.

Metabolic effects of beta-blockers in critically ill patients: A retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Beta-blockers have potential protective features during critical illness. Heart rate reduction, with limited effect on blood pressure and beneficial effects on metabolism, organ function and inflammation have been reported. We examined metabolic effects of beta-blockers among ICU patients, to address the effect on the estimated energy expenditure, measured by carbon dioxide production (VCO2). Furthermore, we investigated effects on organ function and inflammation. METHODS: A retrospective study in adult patients admitted to our 17-beds mixed medical-surgical ICU from January 2013 to March 2016. Mechanically ventilated patients who commenced beta-blockers were eligible for inclusion. Exclusion criteria were: beta-blocker therapy in the 7 previous days, treatment duration <48 h, therapeutic hypothermia, and no VCO2 measurements. Outcome parameters were obtained at 6 different time points from 24 h before until 48 h after beta-blocker commencement. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate trends. RESULTS: In total 58 patients were included. Various types of beta-blockers were administered, with a median equivalent daily dose to metoprolol of 50.0 mg (IQR 25.0-62.5). The mean heart rate decreased from 103 ± 20 to 91 ± 19 beats per minute after 48 h (p < 0.001), with unaltered blood pressures. Metabolic and other parameters did not show significant differences over time, or parameter changes were due to trends that had already started before beta-blocker commencement. CONCLUSIONS: No changes in VCO2 after beta-blocker commencement were demonstrated suggesting no alterations in energy expenditure. Heart rates significantly decreased with unaltered blood pressures. Other parameters did not show trends that could be attributed to beta-blockers effects.

Associations of hyperosmolar medications administered via nasogastric or nasoduodenal tubes and feeding adequacy, food intolerance and gastrointestinal complications amongst critically ill patients: A retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Adequate nutrition is essential during critical illness. However, providing adequate nutrition is often hindered by gastro-intestinal complications, including feeding intolerance. It is suggested that hyperosmolar medications could be causally involved in the development of gastro-intestinal complications. The aims of the present study were 1) to determine the osmolality of common enterally administered dissolved medications and 2) to study the associations between nasogastric and nasoduodenal administered hyperosmolar medications and nutritional adequacy as well as food intolerance and gastro-intestinal symptoms. METHODS: This retrospective observational cohort study was performed in a medical-surgical ICU in the Netherlands. Adult critically ill patients receiving enteral nutrition and admitted for a minimum ICU duration of 7 days were eligible. The osmolalities of commonly used enterally administrated medications were measured using an osmometer. Patients were divided in two groups: Use of hyperosmolar medications (>500 mOsm/kg) on at least one day during the first week versus none. The associations between the use of hyperosmolar medications and nutritional adequacy were assessed using multiple logistic regression analysis. The associations between hyperosmolar medication and food intolerance as well as gastrointestinal symptoms were assessed using ordinal logistic regression. RESULTS: In total 443 patients met the inclusion criteria. Of the assessed medications, only three medications were found hyperosmolar. We observed no associations between the use of hyperosmolar medications and nutritional adequacy in the first week of ICU admission (caloric intake ß -0.27 95%CI -1.38; 0.83, protein intake ß 0.32 95%CI -0.90; 1.53). In addition, no associations were found for enteral feeding intolerance, diarrhea, obstipation, gastric residual volume, nausea and vomiting in ICU patients receiving hyperosmolar medications via a nasogastric tube. A subgroup analysis of patients on duodenal feeding showed that postpyloric administration of hyperosmolar medications was associated with increased risk of diarrhea (OR 138.7 95%CI 2.33; 8245). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that nasogastric administration of hyperosmolar medication via a nasogastric tube does not affect nutritional adequacy, development of enteral feeding intolerance and other gastro-intestinal complications during the first week after ICU admission. During nasoduodenal administration an increased diarrhea incidence may be encountered.

Impact of caloric intake in critically ill patients with, and without, refeeding syndrome: A retrospective study.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Refeeding syndrome comprises metabolic disturbances that occur after the reintroduction of feeding after prolonged fasting. Standard care consists of correcting fluid and electrolytes imbalances. Energy intake during refeeding syndrome is heavily debated. This study addresses the effect of caloric intake on outcome during the management of refeeding syndrome. METHODS: A retrospective study among critically ill invasive mechanically ventilated patients admitted for >7 days to a medical-surgical ICU. Refeeding syndrome was diagnosed by the occurrence of new onset hypophosphatemia (<0.65 mmol/l) within 72 h of the start of nutritional support. Primary outcome was 6-month mortality. Secondary outcomes were 3-month mortality, ICU and hospital length of stay and duration of mechanical ventilation. Outcomes of patients with and without refeeding syndrome were compared and subgroup analysis on energy intake within the refeeding population was performed for the duration of survival. RESULTS: Of 337 enrolled patients, 124 (36.8%) developed refeeding syndrome and 213 patients (63.2%) maintained normal serum phosphate levels. Between the two groups, no statistical significant differences in clinical outcomes were observed. Within the refeeding syndrome group, a reduced 6-month mortality risk for low caloric intake (<50% of target) was seen compared with normal intake, adjusted Hazard Ratio 0.39, (95% CI 0.16-0.95, p = 0.037). In this group, low caloric intake was associated with an increased overall survival time at day 180 (153.0 (SE 10.1) vs 119.1 (SE 8.0) days, log-rank p = 0.018). CONCLUSIONS: Refeeding syndrome is common among prolonged mechanically ventilated critically ill patients, however not predictable by baseline characteristics. Among patients that develop refeeding syndrome low caloric intake was associated with a reduction in 6-month mortality risk. This effect was not seen in patients without refeeding syndrome. Findings support caloric restriction in refeeding syndrome during critical illness.

Nutritional assessment of critically ill patients: validation of the modified NUTRIC score.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: In order to identify critically ill patients with high nutritional risk the modified NUTrition Risk in the Critically ill (mNUTRIC)-score was developed. This score aims to identify patients that will benefit from nutritional interventions. Few data are available on its validity. In The Netherlands, the MUST-score, a nutritional assessment tool for non-ICU patients, is commonly used in the ICU. To validate the mNUTRIC-score in Dutch ICU patients and compare its prognostic performance with the MUST-score. SUBJECTS/METHODS: A single-center retrospective cohort study among 475 mechanically ventilated patients. Prognostic performance of the mNUTRIC and MUST-scores were assessed and compared for discriminative abilities for 28-day mortality and prolonged mechanical ventilation (>2 days). RESULTS: The discriminative ability of the mNUTRIC-score for 28-day mortality is (ROC-AUC) 0.768 (95% CI 0.722-0.814) with an associated LR+ of 1.73 (95% CI 1.53-1.95) and LR- of 0.24 (95% CI 0.14-0.39) when comparing low with high (>4) scores. Comparing low with high MUST-scores (>1) a ROC-AUC of 0.513 (95% CI 0.445-0.587) and LR+ of 1.05 (95%CI 0.77-1.45) and LR- of 0.97 (95% CI 0.71-1.17) for mortality were found. The discriminative ability for prolonged ventilation was 0.666 (95% CI 0.616-0.716) and 0.532 (95% CI 0.469-0.594) for the mNUTRIC and MUST-scores, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The prognostic performance of the mNUTRIC-score for 28-day mortality is fair and comparable to other validation studies. The association with prolonged ventilation was not confirmed by our results. The mNUTRIC-score has better performance than the commonly used MUST-score. Therefore, we suggest abandoning use of the MUST-score and to recommend introduction of the mNUTRIC-score for the nutritional risk assessment of critically ill patients.

Effects of implementation of a computerized nutritional protocol in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: A single-centre before and after study.

INTRODUCTION: Optimal nutrition, defined as adequate intake of energy, macronutrients -especially proteins- and micronutrients impacts on outcome of patients admitted to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU). However, both nutrition below and over target have been associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Computerized nutrition protocols may help to improve nutrition adequacy. In July 2014 a computerized nutritional protocol was implemented in our ICU. We designed a study to address the effects of this protocol implementation on energy and protein adequacy and outcome. METHODS: A retrospective pre-post analysis of nutrition adequacy in adult mechanically ventilated critically ill patients before and after the implementation of an electronic nutritional protocol to initiate feeding and with hourly feedback. Primary outcome was adequacy of total caloric intake from day 2-7, secondary outcomes were adequacy of protein intake, clinical outcome results (length of ICU and hospital stay, ICU and hospital mortality, duration of tube feeding, duration of mechanical ventilation, number of patients with parenteral nutrition), and glucose and electrolyte abnormalities. RESULTS: In total 146 patients were included (73 patients before and 73 patients after implementation). Before implementation we encountered more patients who were fed above target (actual caloric intake >110% of target) than after implementation (during day 2-7: 12% vs. 3%, P = 0.029) without significant reduction of protein intake (daily means during day 2-7: 1.18 g/kg vs. 1.08 g/kg, P = 0.09). Only on day 6, significantly more patients were fed on target after implementation (80-110%; 47% vs. 67%, P = 0.028). No differences in numbers of patients who were fed below target (<80%) were found. Numbers of patients with hypokalaemia after implementation (59% vs. 38%, P = 0.013) were lower. The incidence of electrolyte abnormalities (hypernatraemia, hyponatraemia and hypokalaemia) was lower after implementation, however hypomagnesaemia incidence increased. No statistical significant differences in clinical outcome were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of an electronic nutritional protocol to initiate feeding with hourly feedback in our ICU reduced the rate of mechanically ventilated patients fed above target without reducing protein intake or increasing the rates of feeding below target, while reducing the incidence of electrolyte abnormalities. No statistical significant differences in other clinical outcomes were observed.